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Stewart A, Seepersad C, Hosein A, Agard J, Cashman A, Chadee D, Ramsubhag A. Sources and microbiological quality of domestic water in three rural communities in the southern Caribbean. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2023; 21:109-124. [PMID: 36705501 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2022.249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the sources and microbiological quality of domestic water used by rural communities of Speightstown, Barbados; Carriacou, Grenada; and Nariva, Trinidad. The primary water source was harvested rainwater in Carriacou, and the public water supply for Nariva and Speightstown. Secondary water supplies of the communities came from untreated sources including rainwater, wells, boreholes and springs. E. coli was detected at higher frequencies in water from Carriacou (41.3%) and Nariva (47.4%) than Speightstown (3.6%). Generally, more untreated samples of rainwater (44.6%) and surface/ground water (58.3%) were E. coli positive than treated water obtained from the public supply (9.9%). These findings demonstrate the increased risk to residents in rural communities of the Caribbean who utilize untreated rainwater and environmental sources such as springs and wells. These results demonstrate the usefulness of traditional methods such as the compartment bag test in determining the microbiological quality of domestic water in resource-challenged rural communities of the Caribbean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akilah Stewart
- The Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago E-mail:
| | - Catherine Seepersad
- The Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago E-mail:
| | - Aliya Hosein
- The Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago E-mail:
| | - John Agard
- The Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago E-mail:
| | - Adrian Cashman
- The Centre for Resource Management and Environmental Studies, The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill, Barbados
| | - Dave Chadee
- The Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago E-mail: ; Deceased
| | - Adesh Ramsubhag
- The Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago E-mail:
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Rao G, Kahler A, Voth-Gaeddert LE, Cranford H, Libbey S, Galloway R, Molinari NA, Ellis EM, Yoder JS, Mattioli MC, Ellis BR. Microbial Characterization, Factors Contributing to Contamination, and Household Use of Cistern Water, U.S. Virgin Islands. ACS ES&T WATER 2022; 2:2634-2644. [PMID: 36530952 PMCID: PMC9745795 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.2c00389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Households in the United States Virgin Islands (USVI) heavily rely on roof-harvested rainwater stored in cisterns for their daily activities. However, there are insufficient data on cistern water microbiological and physicochemical characteristics to inform appropriate cistern water management. Cistern and kitchen tap water samples were collected from 399 geographically representative households across St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John and an administered survey captured household site and cistern characteristics and water use behaviors. Water samples were analyzed for Escherichia coli by culture, and a subset of cistern water samples (N = 47) were analyzed for Salmonella, Naegleria fowleri, pathogenic Leptospira, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and human-specific fecal contamination using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Associations between E. coli cistern contamination and cistern and site characteristics were evaluated to better understand possible mechanisms of contamination. E. coli was detected in 80% of cistern water samples and in 58% of kitchen tap samples. For the subset of samples tested by PCR, at least one of the pathogens was detected in 66% of cisterns. Our results suggest that covering overflow pipes with screens, decreasing animal presence at the household, and preventing animals or insects from entering the cisterns can decrease the likelihood of E. coli contamination in USVI cistern water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gouthami Rao
- Division
of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Amy Kahler
- Division
of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Lee E. Voth-Gaeddert
- Division
of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Hannah Cranford
- United
States Virgin Islands Department of Health, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands 00820, United States
| | - Stephen Libbey
- Love
City Strong, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands 00830, United States
| | - Renee Galloway
- Division
of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Noelle-Angelique Molinari
- Division
of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Esther M. Ellis
- United
States Virgin Islands Department of Health, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands 00820, United States
| | - Jonathan S. Yoder
- Division
of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Mia C. Mattioli
- Division
of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia 30329, United States
| | - Brett R. Ellis
- United
States Virgin Islands Department of Health, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands 00820, United States
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Waso M, Dobrowsky PH, Hamilton KA, Puzon G, Miller H, Khan W, Ahmed W. Abundance of Naegleria fowleri in roof-harvested rainwater tank samples from two continents. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:5700-5710. [PMID: 29230646 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-0870-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Roof-harvested rainwater (RHRW) has been used as an alternative source of water in water scarce regions of many countries. The microbiological and chemical quality of RHRW has been questioned due to the presence of bacterial and protozoan pathogens. However, information on the occurrence of pathogenic amoeba in RHRW tank samples is needed due to their health risk potential and known associations with opportunistic pathogens. Therefore, this study aims to determine the quantitative occurrence of Naegleria fowleri in RHRW tank samples from Southeast Queensland (SEQ), Australia (AU), and the Kleinmond Housing Scheme located in Kleinmond, South Africa (SA). In all, 134 and 80 RHRW tank samples were collected from SEQ, and the Kleinmond Housing Scheme, Western Cape, SA, respectively. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays were used to measure the concentrations of N. fowleri, and culture-based methods were used to measure fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Enterococcus spp. Of the 134 tank water samples tested from AU, 69 and 62.7% were positive for E. coli, and Enterococcus spp., respectively. For the SA tank water samples, FIB analysis was conducted for samples SA-T41 to SA-T80 (n = 40). Of the 40 samples analyzed from SA, 95 and 35% were positive for E. coli and Enterococcus spp., respectively. Of the 134 water samples tested in AU, 15 (11.2%) water samples were positive for N. fowleri, and the concentrations ranged from 1.7 × 102 to 3.6 × 104 gene copies per 100 mL of water. Of the 80 SA tank water samples screened for N. fowleri, 15 (18.8%) tank water samples were positive for N. fowleri and the concentrations ranged from 2.1 × 101 to 7.8 × 104 gene copies per 100 mL of tank water. The prevalence of N. fowleri in RHRW tank samples from AU and SA thus warrants further development of dose-response models for N. fowleri and a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) to inform and prioritize strategies for reducing associated public health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique Waso
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch, 7602, South Africa
| | - Penelope Heather Dobrowsky
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch, 7602, South Africa
| | - Kerry Ann Hamilton
- Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Brisbane, QLD, 4102, Australia
| | - Geoffrey Puzon
- CSIRO Land and Water, Private Bag No.5, Wembley, WA, 6913, Australia
| | - Haylea Miller
- CSIRO Land and Water, Private Bag No.5, Wembley, WA, 6913, Australia
| | - Wesaal Khan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch, 7602, South Africa
| | - Warish Ahmed
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Brisbane, QLD, 4102, Australia.
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Dobrowsky PH, Khan S, Khan W. Resistance of Legionella and Acanthamoeba mauritaniensis to heat treatment as determined by relative and quantitative polymerase chain reactions. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2017; 158:82-93. [PMID: 28609649 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Revised: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/04/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Legionella and Acanthamoeba spp. persist in harvested rainwater pasteurized at high temperatures (> 72°C) and the interaction mechanisms exhibited between these organisms need to be elucidated. The resistance of two Legionella reference strains (Legionella pneumophila ATCC 33152 and Legionella longbeachae ATCC 33462), three environmental strains [Legionella longbeachae (env.), Legionella norrlandica (env.) and Legionella rowbothamii (env.)] and Acanthamoeba mauritaniensis ATCC 50676 to heat treatment (50-90°C) was determined by monitoring culturability and viability [ethidium monoazide quantitative polymerase chain reaction (EMA-qPCR)]. The expression of metabolic and virulence genes of L. pneumophila ATCC 33152 (lolA, sidF, csrA) and L. longbeachae (env.) (lolA) in co-culture with A. mauritaniensis ATCC 50676 during heat treatment (50-90°C) was monitored using relative qPCR. While the culturability (CFU/mL) and viability (gene copies/mL) of the Legionella strains reduced significantly (p < 0.05) following heat treatment (60-90°C), L. longbeachae (env.) and L. pneumophila ATCC 33152 were culturable following heat treatment at 50-60°C. Metabolically active trophozoites and dormant cysts of A. mauritaniensis ATCC 50676 were detected at 50°C and 60-90°C, respectively. For L. pneumophila ATCC 33152, lolA expression remained constant, sidF expression increased and the expression of csrA decreased during co-culture with A. mauritaniensis ATCC 50676. For L. longbeachae (env.), while lolA was up-regulated at 50-70°C, expression was not detected at 80-90°C and in co-culture. In conclusion, while heat treatment may reduce the number of viable Legionella spp. in monoculture, results indicate that the presence of A. mauritaniensis increases the virulence of L. pneumophila during heat treatment. The virulence of Legionella spp. in co-culture with Acanthamoeba spp. should thus be monitored in water distribution systems where temperature (heat) is utilized for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penelope H Dobrowsky
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa.
| | - Sehaam Khan
- Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, Namibia University of Science and Technology,13 Storch Street, Private Bag 13388, Windhoek, Namibia.
| | - Wesaal Khan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa.
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Kirs M, Moravcik P, Gyawali P, Hamilton K, Kisand V, Gurr I, Shuler C, Ahmed W. Rainwater harvesting in American Samoa: current practices and indicative health risks. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:12384-12392. [PMID: 28357803 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-8858-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Roof-harvested rainwater (RHRW) is an important alternative source of water that many island communities can use for drinking and other domestic purposes when groundwater and/or surface water sources are contaminated, limited, or simply not available. The aim of this pilot-scale study was to investigate current RHRW practices in American Samoa (AS) and to evaluate and compare the quality of water from common potable water sources including RHRW stored in tanks, untreated stream water, untreated municipal well water, and treated municipal tap water samples. Samples were analyzed using culture-based methods, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and 16S amplicon sequencing-based methods. Based on indicator bacteria (total coliform and Escherichia coli) concentrations, the quality of RHRW was slightly lower than well and chlorinated tap water but exceeded that of untreated stream water. Although no Giardia or Leptospira spp. were detected in any of the RHRW samples, 86% of the samples were positive for Cryptosporidium spp. All stream water samples tested positive for Cryptosporidium spp. Opportunistic pathogens (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Mycobacterium intracellulare) were also detected in the RHRW samples (71 and 21% positive samples, respectively). Several potentially pathogenic genera of bacteria were also detected in RHRW by amplicon sequencing. Each RHRW system was characterized by distinct microbial communities, 77% of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were detected only in a single tank, and no OTU was shared by all the tanks. Risk of water-borne illness increased in the following order: chlorinated tap water/well water < RHRW < stream water. Frequent detection of opportunistic pathogens indicates that RHRW should be treated before use. Stakeholder education on RHRW system design options as well as on importance of regular cleaning and proper management techniques could improve the quality of the RHRW in AS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Kirs
- Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii, 2540 Dole Street, Holmes Hall 283, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA.
| | - Philip Moravcik
- Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii, 2540 Dole Street, Holmes Hall 283, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA
| | - Pradip Gyawali
- School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD, 4006, Australia
| | - Kerry Hamilton
- Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Veljo Kisand
- Institute of Technology, Tartu University, Nooruse 1, 50411, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Ian Gurr
- American Samoa Community College, P.O. Box 2609, Pago Pago, 96799, American Samoa
| | - Christopher Shuler
- Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Hawaii, 2540 Dole Street, Holmes Hall 283, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA
| | - Warish Ahmed
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Brisbane, 4102, Australia
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Ding A, Wang J, Lin D, Tang X, Cheng X, Wang H, Bai L, Li G, Liang H. A low pressure gravity-driven membrane filtration (GDM) system for rainwater recycling: Flux stabilization and removal performance. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 172:21-28. [PMID: 28061342 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.12.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Rainwater is a nature resource, which can be widely used for non-potable and potable applications in water scared countries after appropriate treatment. Gravity-driven membrane filtration (GDM) process is a promising technology for decentralized rainwater treatment due to no backwashing, flushing and chemical cleaning. In this study, we established a single lab-scale GDM system for the stored rainwater (simulative cellar rainwater) treatment with two months operation, and a stored tap water was used as a compared system to evaluate the permeability and organics removal performance. Results showed that GDM exhibited a good performance for bacteria and turbidity removals, but the removal performance of DOC was undesirable due to the low rejection of low molecular-weight fulvic. Additionally, the permeate flux reached stable with the value of 6-6.5 L/m2h during 60 days operation in the rainwater system, however, the tap water system stabilized only at 4 L/m2h. Hydraulically reversible resistance accounted for large proportions (90%) of the total resistance, which indicated that the flux could be recovered by simple physical flushing. The bio-fouling layer adhered on the membrane surface was characterized at the end of the filtration experiment. Higher bio-activity with lower EPS (polysaccharides and proteins) contents of the fouling layer were found in the rainwater system compared with the control system, which was the main reason for the higher flux. These results show that rainwater can be treated in a single GDM process with low maintenance, which makes the process suitable for decentralized water supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- An Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150090, PR China.
| | - Jinlong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150090, PR China.
| | - Dachao Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150090, PR China.
| | - Xiaobin Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150090, PR China.
| | - Xiaoxiang Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150090, PR China.
| | - Hui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150090, PR China.
| | - Langming Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150090, PR China.
| | - Guibai Li
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150090, PR China.
| | - Heng Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment (SKLUWRE), Harbin Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150090, PR China.
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Waso M, Ndlovu T, Dobrowsky PH, Khan S, Khan W. Presence of microbial and chemical source tracking markers in roof-harvested rainwater and catchment systems for the detection of fecal contamination. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:16987-7001. [PMID: 27206748 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-6895-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Microbial source tracking (MST) and chemical source tracking (CST) markers were utilized to identify fecal contamination in harvested rainwater and gutter debris samples. Throughout the sampling period, Bacteroides HF183 was detected in 57.5 % of the tank water samples and 95 % of the gutter debris samples, while adenovirus was detected in 42.5 and 52.5 % of the tank water and gutter debris samples, respectively. Human adenovirus was then detected at levels ranging from below the detection limit to 316 and 1253 genome copies/μL in the tank water and debris samples, respectively. Results for the CST markers showed that salicylic acid (average 4.62 μg/L) was the most prevalent marker (100 %) in the gutter debris samples, caffeine (average 18.0 μg/L) was the most prevalent in the tank water samples (100 %) and acetaminophen was detected sporadically throughout the study period. Bacteroides HF183 and salicylic acid (95 %) and Bacteroides HF183 and caffeine (80 %) yielded high concurrence frequencies in the gutter debris samples. In addition, the highest concurrence frequency in the tank water samples was observed for Bacteroides HF183 and caffeine (60 %). The current study thus indicates that Bacteroides HF183, salicylic acid and caffeine may potentially be applied as source tracking markers in rainwater catchment systems in order to supplement fecal indicator analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Waso
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch, 7602, South Africa
| | - T Ndlovu
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch, 7602, South Africa
| | - P H Dobrowsky
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch, 7602, South Africa
| | - S Khan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Wellness Sciences, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, P.O. Box 1906, Bellville, 7535, South Africa
| | - W Khan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch, 7602, South Africa.
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Prevalence of virulence genes associated with pathogenic Escherichia coli strains isolated from domestically harvested rainwater during low- and high-rainfall periods. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 80:1633-8. [PMID: 24375127 DOI: 10.1128/aem.03061-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The possible health risks associated with the consumption of harvested rainwater remains one of the major obstacles hampering its large-scale implementation in water limited countries such as South Africa. Rainwater tank samples collected on eight occasions during the low- and high-rainfall periods (March to August 2012) in Kleinmond, South Africa, were monitored for the presence of virulence genes associated with Escherichia coli. The identity of presumptive E. coli isolates in rainwater samples collected from 10 domestic rainwater harvesting (DRWH) tanks throughout the sampling period was confirmed through universal 16S rRNA PCR with subsequent sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Species-specific primers were also used to routinely screen for the virulent genes, aggR, stx, eae, and ipaH found in enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC), enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), and enteroinvasive E. coli, respectively, in the rainwater samples. Of the 92 E. coli strains isolated from the rainwater using culture based techniques, 6% were presumptively positively identified as E. coli O157:H7 using 16S rRNA. Furthermore, virulent pathogenic E. coli genes were detected in 3% (EPEC and EHEC) and 16% (EAEC) of the 80 rainwater samples collected during the sampling period from the 10 DRWH tanks. This study thus contributes valuable information to the limited data available regarding the ongoing prevalence of virulent pathotypes of E. coli in harvested rainwater during a longitudinal study in a high-population-density, periurban setting.
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Marcynuk PB, Flint JA, Sargeant JM, Jones-Bitton A, Brito AM, Luna CF, Szilassy E, Thomas MK, Lapa TM, Perez E, Costa AM. Comparison of the burden of diarrhoeal illness among individuals with and without household cisterns in northeast Brazil. BMC Infect Dis 2013; 13:65. [PMID: 23379474 PMCID: PMC3598383 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-13-65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2012] [Accepted: 01/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Lack of access to safe and secure water is an international issue recognized by the United Nations. To address this problem, the One Million Cisterns Project was initiated in 2001 in Brazil’s semi-arid region to provide a sustainable source of water to households. The objectives of this study were to determine the 30-day period prevalence of diarrhoea in individuals with and without cisterns and determine symptomology, duration of illness and type of health care sought among those with diarrhoea. A subgroup analysis was also conducted among children less than five years old. Methods A face-to-face survey was conducted between August 20th and September 20th, 2007 in the Agreste Central Region of Pernambuco State, Brazil. Households with and without a cistern that had at least one child under the age of five years were selected using systematic convenient sampling. Differences in health outcomes between groups were assessed using Pearson’s Chi-squared and two-way t-tests. Demographic variables were tested for univariable associations with diarrhoea using logistic regression with random effects. P-values of 0.05 or less were considered statistically significant. Results A total of 3679 people from 774 households were included in the analysis (1863 people from 377 households with cisterns and 1816 people from 397 households without cisterns). People from households with a cistern had a significantly lower 30-day period prevalence of diarrhoea (prevalence = 11.0%; 95% CI 9.5-12.4) than people from households without a cistern (prevalence = 18.2%; 95% CI 16.4-20.0). This significant difference was also found in a subgroup analysis of children under five years old; those children with a cistern had a 30-day period prevalence of 15.6% (95% CI 12.3-18.9) versus 26.7% (95% CI 22.8-30.6) in children without a cistern. There were no significant differences between those people with and without cisterns in terms of the types of symptoms, duration of illness and health care sought for diarrhoea. Conclusions Our results indicate that the use of cisterns for drinking water is associated with a decreased occurrence of diarrhoea in this study population. Further research accounting for additional risk factors and preventative factors should be conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasha B Marcynuk
- Centre for Food-borne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
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Lye DJ. Rooftop runoff as a source of contamination: a review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2009; 407:5429-34. [PMID: 19647287 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2009] [Revised: 06/26/2009] [Accepted: 07/07/2009] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Scientific reports concerning chemical and microbiological contaminant levels of rainwater runoff from rooftop collection in both urban and rural areas are reviewed. This alternative source of water has been documented to often contain substantial amounts of contaminants. Studies describing levels of heavy metal contamination specific to runoff from rooftop catchment areas containing exposed metal surfaces are discussed. Depending upon the intended use, scientific evidence is also accumulating that various treatments and disinfections will be required prior to release of roof-runoff water either into surface waters or for more direct consumer usage. For microbial contamination, current proposed standards and guidelines regarding this type of water source are shown to vary widely worldwide. Scientific literature reveals a lack of clarity regarding water quality guidelines and health related standards for certain types of rooftop runoff. Studies suggests that rainwater collection systems which are properly designed, maintained, and treated may provide a valuable supplement to existing water supplies by reducing demand on community water supplies/infrastructure costs, enhancing effective management of storm water runoff, and increasing restoration of underground reservoirs through controlled infiltration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis J Lye
- USEPA, MCEARD, MS 314, 26W. Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, USA.
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