Responses of pulmonary C-fibre and rapidly adapting receptor afferents to pulmonary congestion and edema in dogs

Arachidonic acid products in airway nociceptor activation during acute lung injury

We have reported that airway nociceptors [C fibre receptors (CFRs) and high-threshold Aδ fibre receptors (HTARs)] are activated during oleic acid (OA)-induced acute lung injury. In the present studies, we tested the hypothesis that this nociceptor activation is mediated by arachidonic acid products. In anaesthetized, open-chest, mechanically ventilated rabbits, we examined the response of the nociceptors to intravenous injection of OA before and after blocking the cyclo-oxygenase pathways with indomethacin. Pretreatment with indomethacin (20 mg kg(-1)) decreased the background activities of both CFRs (from 0.48 ± 0.12 to 0.25 ± 0.08 impulses/s, n = 7, P < 0.05) and HTARs (from 0.54 ± 0.14 to 0.23 ± 0.08 impulses/s, n = 10, P < 0.01). It also blocked the response of the nociceptors to OA. Likewise, pretreatment with thromboxane synthase inhibitor (ketoconazole) also blocked the nociceptor response to OA. In addition, local microinjection or intravenous injection of a thromboxane mimetic stimulated CFRs and HTARs. The present results clearly indicate that arachidonic acid metabolites mediate airway nociceptor activation during OA-induced acute lung injury and suggest that thromboxane may be a key mediator.

Sensory nerves and airway irritability

The lung, like many other organs, is innervated by a variety of sensory nerves and by nerves of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems that regulate the function of cells within the respiratory tract. Activation of sensory nerves by both mechanical and chemical stimuli elicits a number of defensive reflexes, including cough, altered breathing pattern, and altered autonomic drive, which are important for normal lung homeostasis. However, diseases that afflict the lung are associated with altered reflexes, resulting in a variety of symptoms, including increased cough, dyspnea, airways obstruction, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness. This review summarizes the current knowledge concerning the physiological role of different sensory nerve subtypes that innervate the lung, the factors which lead to their activation, and pharmacological approaches that have been used to interrogate the function of these nerves. This information may potentially facilitate the identification of novel drug targets for the treatment of respiratory disorders such as cough, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

The involvement of hydroxyl radical and cyclooxygenase metabolites in the activation of lung vagal sensory receptors by circulatory endotoxin in rats

Circulatory endotoxin can stimulate vagal pulmonary C fibers and rapidly adapting receptors (RARs) in rats, but the underlying mechanisms are not clear. We investigated the involvement of hydroxyl radicals and cyclooxygenase metabolites in the stimulation of C fibers and RARs by circulatory endotoxin (50 mg/kg) in 112 anesthetized, paralyzed, and artificially ventilated rats. In rats pretreated with the vehicle, endotoxin stimulated C fibers and RARs and caused a slight increase in total lung resistance (Rl) and a decrease in dynamic lung compliance. In rats pretreated with dimethylthiourea (a hydroxyl radical scavenger) alone, indomethacin (a cyclooxygenase inhibitor) alone, or a combination of the two, C-fiber and RAR responses [C fiber: change (Delta) = -62, -79, and -85%; RAR: Delta = -80, -84, and -84%, respectively] were reduced, and the Rl response was prevented. The suppressive effects of a combination of dimethylthiourea and indomethacin on the C-fiber and RAR responses were not superior to indomethacin alone. In rats pretreated with isoproterenol (a bronchodilator), the C-fiber response was not significantly affected (Delta = -26%), the RAR response was reduced (Delta = -88%), and the Rl response was prevented. None of these pretreatments affected the dynamic lung compliance response. These results suggest that 1) both hydroxyl radicals and cyclooxygenase metabolites are involved in the endotoxin-induced stimulation of C fibers and RARs, and 2) the involvement of these two metabolites in the C-fiber stimulation may be due to their chemical effects, whereas that in the RAR stimulation may be due to their bronchoconstrictive effects.

Afferent vagal pathways mediating respiratory reflexes evoked by ROS in the lungs of anesthetized rats

We investigated the afferent vagal pathways mediating respiratory reflexes evoked by reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the lungs of anesthetized rats. Spontaneous inhalation of 0.2% aerosolized H(2)O(2) acutely evoked initial bradypnea followed by delayed tachypnea, which was frequently mixed with delayed augmented inspiration. The initial response was abolished after perivagal capsaicin treatment (PCT), but was prolonged during vagal cooling (VC) to 7 degrees C; PCT and VC are known to differentially block the conduction of unmyelinated C and myelinated fibers, respectively. The delayed responses were eliminated during VC but emerged earlier after PCT. Vagotomy, catalase (an antioxidant for H(2)O(2)), dimethylthiourea (an antioxidant for. OH), or deferoxamine (an antioxidant for. OH) largely or totally suppressed these reflexive responses, whereas sham nerve treatment, heat-inactivated catalase, saline vehicle, or iron-saturated deferoxamine failed to do so. These results suggest that 1) the H(2)O(2)-evoked initial and delayed airway reflexes are antagonistic and may result from stimulation of lung C fibers and rapidly adapting receptors, respectively, and 2) the reflex effects of H(2)O(2) are, in part, due to the action of. OH on these afferents.

Activation of dopamine D2-like receptors attenuates pulmonary C-fiber hypersensitivity in rats

This study was performed to determine whether activation of dopamine D2-like receptors inhibits the hyperresponsiveness of pulmonary C fibers induced by inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). In anesthetized, open-chest rats, constant infusion of PGE2 (1.5-4.5 microg/kg per minute, 2 minutes) significantly enhanced the C-fiber response to capsaicin injection. At 20 minutes after pretreatment with quinpirole (3 mg/kg, intravenous), a D2-like receptor agonist, the hyperresponsiveness to capsaicin of the same C fibers induced by PGE2 infusion was markedly attenuated, and this inhibitory effect lasted for more than 90 minutes. The effect of quinpirole was dose dependent and was antagonized by pretreatment with domperidone (5 mg/kg, intravenous), a D2-like receptor antagonist, administrated 10 minutes before the quinpirole injection. In a separate series of experiments, C-fiber responses to injections of phenyl biguanide and lactic acid and to constant-pressure lung inflation were augmented by PGE2; these potentiating responses were also significantly reduced by quinpirole. Furthermore, the effect of quinpirole was equally effective in inhibiting the increase in excitability of pulmonary C fibers induced by alveolar hypercapnia or constant infusion of adenosine. In conclusion, these results clearly show that activation of the dopamine D2-like receptors attenuates the hyperresponsiveness of pulmonary C fibers to both chemical stimuli and lung inflation.

Responses of C fiber afferents of the rabbit airways and lungs to changes in extra-vascular fluid volume

Effects of changes in extra-vascular fluid volume produced by pulmonary lymphatic obstruction and plasmapheresis on the activities of bronchial and pulmonary C fiber receptors and rapidly adapting receptors (RARs) were investigated in New Zealand White rabbits. In intact rabbits, pulmonary lymphatic obstruction either alone or in combination with plasmapheresis did not stimulate pulmonary C fiber receptors. Only the combined stimulus activated the bronchial C fiber receptors. Bronchial C fiber receptors were also stimulated by graded increases in left atrial pressure (+5 and +10 mmHg). In contrast, RARs were activated by lymphatic obstruction either alone or in combination with plasmapheresis. These procedures increase the extra-vascular fluid volume in the carina and bronchi but not in the lungs (alveoli). In rabbits with chronic pulmonary venous congestion secondary to mitral valve damage, bronchial C fiber receptors were not stimulated by these increments in left atrial pressure which were insufficient to increase the extra vascular fluid content of the airways. However, both pulmonary and bronchial C fiber receptors were stimulated when the left atrial pressure was raised to 25 mmHg in these animals to cause pulmonary edema.

Activation of lung vagal sensory receptors by circulatory endotoxin in rats

Although endotoxin is known to induce various pulmonary responses that are linked to the function of lung vagal sensory receptors, its effects on these pulmonary receptors are still not clear. This study investigated the effects of circulatory endotoxin on the afferent activity of lung vagal sensory receptors in rats. We recorded afferent activity arising from vagal pulmonary C fibers (CFs), rapidly adapting receptors (RARs), tonic pulmonary stretch receptors (T-PSRs), and phasic pulmonary stretch receptors (P-PSRs) in 64 anesthetized, paralyzed, and artificially ventilated rats. Intravenous injection of endotoxin (50 mg/kg; lipopolysaccharide) stimulated 7 of the 8 CFs, 8 of the 8 RARs, and 4 of the 8 T-PSRs studied, while having no effect on the 8 P-PSRs tested. The stimulation started 3-16 min after endotoxin injection and lasted until the end of the 90-min observation period. The evoked discharge of either CFs or RARs was not in phase with the ventilatory cycle, whereas that of T-PSRs showed a respiratory modulation. Injection of a saline vehicle caused no significant change in the discharge of these receptors. Additionally, endotoxin significantly produced an increase in total lung resistance, and decreases in dynamic lung compliance and arterial blood pressure. Our results demonstrate that a majority of lung vagal sensory receptors are activated following intravenous injection of endotoxin, and support the notion that these pulmonary receptors may function as an important afferent system during endotoxemia.

Consequences of capsaicin treatment on pulmonary vagal reflexes and chemoreceptor activity in lambs

The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that capsaicin treatment in lambs selectively inhibits bronchopulmonary C-fiber function but does not alter other vagal pulmonary receptor functions or peripheral and central chemoreceptor functions. Eleven lambs were randomized to receive a subcutaneous injection of either 25 mg/kg capsaicin (6 lambs) or solvent (5 lambs) under general anesthesia. Capsaicin-treated lambs did not demonstrate the classical ventilatory response consistently observed in response to capsaicin bolus intravenous injection in control lambs. Moreover, the ventilatory responses to stimulation of the rapidly adapting pulmonary stretch receptors (intratracheal water instillation) and slowly adapting pulmonary stretch receptors (Hering-Breuer inflation reflex) were similar in both groups of lambs. Finally, the ventilatory responses to various stimuli and depressants of carotid body activity and to central chemoreceptor stimulation (CO(2) rebreathing) were identical in control and capsaicin-treated lambs. We conclude that 25 mg/kg capsaicin treatment in lambs selectively inhibits bronchopulmonary C-fiber function without significantly affecting the other vagal pulmonary receptor functions or that of peripheral and central chemoreceptors.

Vagal afferents and active upper airway closure during pulmonary edema in lambs

The present study was undertaken to gain further insight into the mechanisms responsible for the sustained active expiratory upper airway closure previously observed during high-permeability pulmonary edema in lambs. The experiments were conducted in nonsedated lambs, in which airflow and thyroarytenoid and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle electromyographic activity were recorded. We first studied the consequences of hemodynamic pulmonary edema (induced by impeding pulmonary venous return) on upper airway dynamics in five lambs; under this condition, a sustained expiratory upper airway closure consistently appeared. We then tested whether expiratory upper airway closure was related to vagal afferent activity from bronchopulmonary receptors. Five bivagotomized lambs underwent high-permeability pulmonary edema: no sustained expiratory upper airway closure was observed. Finally, we studied whether a sustained decrease in lung volume induced a sustained expiratory upper airway closure. Five lambs underwent a 250-ml pleural infusion: no sustained expiratory upper airway closure was observed. We conclude that 1) the sustained expiratory upper airway closure observed during pulmonary edema in nonsedated lambs is related to stimulation of vagal afferents by an increase in lung water and 2) a decrease in lung volume does not seem to be the causal factor.

Effects of capsaicin pretreatment on expiratory laryngeal closure during pulmonary edema in lambs

The present study, performed in nonsedated, conscious lambs, consisted of two parts. In the first part, we 1) examined for the first time whether a respiratory response to pulmonary C-fiber stimulation could be elicited in nonsedated newborns and 2) determined whether this response could be abolished by capsaicin pretreatment. Then, by using capsaicin-desensitized lambs, we studied whether pulmonary C fibers were involved in the sustained, active expiratory upper airway closure previously observed during pulmonary edema. Airflow and thyroarytenoid and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle electromyographic activities were recorded. In the first set of experiments, a 5-10 microg/kg capsaicin bolus intravenous injection in seven intact lambs consistently led to a typical pulmonary chemoreflex, showing that C fibers are functionally mature in newborn lambs. In the second series of experiments, eight lambs pretreated with 25-50 mg/kg subcutaneous capsaicin did not exhibit any respiratory response to 10-50 microg/kg intravenous capsaicin injection, implicating C fibers in the response. Finally, in the above capsaicin-desensitized lambs, we observed that halothane-induced high-permeability pulmonary edema did not cause the typical response of sustained expiratory upper airway closure seen in the intact lamb. We conclude that functionally mature C fibers are present and responsible for a pulmonary chemoreflex in response to capsaicin intravenous injection in nonsedated lambs. Capsaicin pretreatment abolishes this reflex. Furthermore, the sustained expiratory upper airway closure observed during halothane-induced pulmonary edema in intact nonsedated lambs appears to be related to a reflex involving stimulation of pulmonary C fibers.

Effect of cardiogenic and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema on histamine responsiveness in sheep

We compared the effects of cardiogenic pulmonary edema, brief pulmonary vascular congestion without frank edema, and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema on responsiveness to inhaled histamine in chronically instrumented awake sheep. Histamine responsiveness was measured before and after 1) cardiogenic pulmonary edema induced by raising left atrial pressure to 35 cmH2O (Pla) for 3.5 h by partial obstruction of flow across the mitral valve, 2) brief cardiogenic congestion via Pla for 0.5 h, 3) noncardiogenic pulmonary edema induced by 25 mg/kg intravenous perilla ketone (PK), and 4) 3.5 h of monitoring without Pla or PK (controls). Treatment for 3.5 h with Pla (n = 9) and PK (n = 11) each significantly lessened the histamine dose required to cause a fall to 65% of baseline dynamic lung compliance (ED65Cdyn), i.e., increased responsiveness. Sheep treated for 0.5 h with Pla (n = 7) and controls (n = 5) showed no significant change in ED65Cdyn. Intravenous atropine (0.1 mg/kg) before the second histamine challenge altered neither the reduction of ED65Cdyn in Pla (n = 8) and PK (n = 9) sheep nor the ED65Cdyn level of controls (n = 9). These data imply that the local effects of edema, rather than bronchial vascular hemodynamics, cholinergic reflexes, and permeability changes, are germane to lung hyperresponsiveness during pulmonary edema in sheep.

Mechanisms underlying stimulation of rapidly adapting receptors during pulmonary air embolism in dogs

We investigated the mechanisms underlying stimulation of rapidly adapting receptors (RARs) during pulmonary air embolism (PAE). Impulses were recorded from RARs in 43 anesthetized, open-chest and artificially ventilated dogs. Forty one out of 56 RARs were stimulated by infusion of air into the right atrium (0.2 ml/kg per min for 10 min). As a group (n = 56), RAR activity increased from a baseline of 1.2 +/- 0.2 to a peak of 4.3 +/- 0.3 impulses/breath at 8-10 min after the onset of PAE induction. PAE also caused an increase in total lung resistance and a decrease in dynamic lung compliance. Studies were repeated in 33 RARs initially stimulated by PAE. In nine receptors, hyperinflation of the lungs performed at the termination of the second PAE induction largely reversed both the afferent and bronchomotor responses. Furthermore, the residual PAE-evoked activity subsequent to hyperinflation was almost eliminated by elevation in the heart position. In another 24 receptors, the responses of RARs to PAE were unaltered by pretreatment with saline (n = 8) or dimethylthiourea (a hydroxyl radical scavenger; n = 8), but was significantly attenuated by pretreatment with ibuprofen (a cyclooxygenase inhibitor: n = 8). These results suggest that: (1) the increased RAR activity following PAE is associated primarily with an increase in bronchomotor tone and secondarily with the mechanical action of the beating heart impacting on lung tissues; and (2) cyclooxygenase products may be involved in this sensory stimulation.

Effect of Diazinon PLUS on rapidly adapting receptors in the rabbit

The effects of Diazinon PLUS aerosol on the activities of rapidly adapting receptors (RARs) and slowly adapting receptors (SAR) of the airways were investigated in anesthetized rabbits. The effects on both the baseline activity and the responses to stimulation by increasing mean left atrial pressure were examined. Action potentials were recorded from the left cervical vagus nerve. Aerosols (particle size 3 microns) were generated by a Mini-HEART nebulizer. We observed that an aerosol of Diazinon PLUS (1:10 vol/vol dilution in normal saline) decreased the baseline RAR activity (n = 10) significantly (P < 0.05) from 209 +/- 77 to 120 +/- 40 impulses/min. In the post-Diazinon PLUS control period, the RAR activity recovered partially to 185 +/- 75 impulses/min and decreased significantly to 131 +/- 52 impulses/min (P < 0.05) after a second exposure of Diazinon PLUS (undiluted) aerosol. Aerosols of normal saline in the control state did not produce a significant change in the RAR activity. A group of SAR (n = 8) were examined under similar conditions, and it was found that only the exposure to Diazinon PLUS (undiluted) aerosol decreased the activity significantly (P < 0.05) from 1,536 +/- 206 to 1,367 +/- 182 impulses/min. The effect of Diazinon PLUS on the response to increasing mean left atrial pressure was examined in seven RARs. In the control state, RAR activity increased significantly (P < 0.05) during elevation of mean left atrial pressure. This response was abolished after exposure to Diazinon PLUS. These findings suggest that diazinon may interfere with airway defense mechanisms by reducing the activity of RARs.

Sidestream smoke exposure enhances rapidly adapting receptor responses to substance P in young guinea pigs

We determined the effect of sidestream tobacco smoke (SS) exposure on responses of lung rapidly adapting receptors (RARs), peak tracheal pressure (Ptr), and arterial blood pressure (ABP) to substance P in young guinea pigs. Guinea pigs were exposed to SS or filtered air from day 8 to days 41-45 of life. They were then anesthetized and given three doses of intravenous substance P (1.56-4.94 nmol/kg). SS exposure augmented substance P-evoked increases in RAR activity (P = 0.029 by analysis of variance) but not substance P-evoked increases in peak Ptr or decreases in ABP. Neurokinin 1-receptor blockade (CP-96345, 400 nmol/kg) attenuated substance P-evoked increases in RAR activity (P = 0.001) and ABP (P = 0.009) but not in peak Ptr (P = 0.06). This chronic exposure to SS in young guinea pigs exaggerates RAR responsiveness to substance P. The findings may help explain the increased incidence of airway hyperresponsiveness and cough in children chronically exposed to environmental tobacco smoke.

Inferior pharyngeal constrictor electromyographic activity during permeability pulmonary edema in lambs

Newborn mammals exhibit an active expiratory upper airway closure during the first hours of extrauterine life. We have recently shown that permeability pulmonary edema led to active expiratory glottic closure in awake newborn lambs while hypoxia (inspired O2 fraction 8%; 15 min) did not. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that expiratory glottic closure was accompanied by an increase in pharyngeal constrictor muscle expiratory electromyographic (EMG) activity. We studied seven awake nonsedated lambs aged 8-20 days. Airflow (facial mask + pneumotachograph), blood gases (arterial catheter), and EMG activity of both the thyroarytenoid muscle (a glottic adductor) and the inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle were recorded before and after intravenous injection of halothane (0.05 ml/kg) to induce a permeability pulmonary edema. A central apnea (duration 15 s to 5 min) with continuous thyroarytenoid and inferior pharyngeal constrictor activity was observed within seconds after halothane injection. One lamb died despite rescuing maneuvers. An expiratory phasic thyroarytenoid and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle activity with simultaneous zero airflow gradually took place and, by 30 min after halothane injection, was present at each expiration in the six remaining lambs. Expiratory glottic and pharyngeal constrictor muscle EMG activity was subsequently present during the whole study period (1.5-5 h), even after correction of the initial hypoxia. Permeability lung edema was present at postmortem examination in all seven lambs. We conclude that a permeability pulmonary edema induced by intravenous halothane in non-sedated lambs enhances both glottic and pharyngeal constrictor muscle expiratory EMG. We hypothesize that expiratory contraction of the inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle could participate in the active expiratory upper airway closure; this, in turn, might improve alveolocapillary gas exchange by increasing the end-expiratory lung volume.

Substance P contributes to rapidly adapting receptor responses to pulmonary venous congestion in rabbits

1. This study tested the hypothesis that substance P stimulates rapidly adapting receptors (RARs), contributes to the increase in RAR activity produced by mild pulmonary congestion, and evokes an augmented response from RARs when combined with near-threshold levels of pulmonary congestion. 2. RAR activity, peak tracheal pressure, arterial blood pressure and left atrial pressure were measured in paralysed, anaesthetized and ventilated rabbits. Substance P was given i.v. in one-half log incremental doses to a maximum of 3 micrograms kg-1. Mild pulmonary congestion was produced by inflating a balloon in the left atrium to increase left atrial pressure by 5 mmHg. Near-threshold levels of pulmonary congestion were produced by increasing left atrial pressure by 2 mmHg. 3. Substance P produced dose-dependent increases in RAR activity. The highest dose given increased the activity from 1.3 +/- 0.5 to 11.0 +/- 3.1 impulses bin-1. Increases in left atrial pressure of 5 mmHg increased RAR activity from 3.8 +/- 1.4 to 14.7 +/- 3.9 impulses bin-1. Blockade of NK1 receptors with CP 96345 significantly attenuated RAR responses to substance P and to mild pulmonary congestion. 4. Doses of substance P, which alone had no effect, stimulated the RARs when delivered during near-threshold levels of pulmonary congestion. 5. The findings suggest that substance P augments the stimulatory effect of mild pulmonary congestion on RAR activity, most probably by enhancing hydraulically induced microvascular leak.

Properties of rapidly adapting receptors of the airways in monkeys (Macaca mulatta)

The properties of rapidly adapting receptors (RARs) of the airways were examined in anaesthetised, artificially ventilated, paralysed and thoracotomised monkeys. The RARs were identified (i) by their rapid adaptation to a maintained inflation and forced deflation of the lungs and (ii) by their conduction velocity measurements. Right atrial (n = 17) and left atrial (n = 13) injections of histamine (10 micrograms/kg) stimulated the RARs. The stimulation was associated with an increase in peak intratracheal pressure. Right atrial injections of phenyl diguanide (n = 6, 10 micrograms/kg) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (n = 6, 10 micrograms/kg) did not produce a significant stimulation of the RARs. Administration of irritant vapours such as ammonia, (n = 12), cigarette smoke (n = 8), alcohol (n = 10), acetone (n = 10) and ether (n = 7), caused a significant stimulation of the RARs. This stimulation occurred in spite of a significant decrease or no change in peak intratracheal pressure. During mild degrees of pulmonary venous congestion produced by graded increments in mean left atrial pressure (+5 and +10 mmHg), there was a graded increase in RAR (n = 6) activity. The present study shows the existence of the RARs in the airways of the rhesus monkey. These receptors are stimulated (i) by administration of agents which cause bronchoconstriction (ii) by vapours which cause airway irritation and (iii) in conditions which cause an expansion of the extravascular space in airways.

Effect of pulmonary lymphatic obstruction on respiratory rate and airway rapidly adapting receptor activity in rabbits

1. The effects on respiratory rate of obstruction of pulmonary lymph flow, reduction of plasma protein concentration and a combination of the two procedures were examined in anaesthetized rabbits. The former was achieved by raising the pressure in a pouch created from the right external jugular vein and the latter by batch plasmapheresis. 2. In spontaneously breathing rabbits, neither pulmonary lymphatic obstruction (n = 6) nor plasmapheresis (n = 5) produced a significant change in respiratory rate. However, their combination (n = 8) produced a significant increase in respiratory rate (P < 0.05). 3. Cooling of the cervical vagi to 8-9 degrees C (n = 4) and vagotomy (n = 7) abolished this response. 4. There was a significant increase in the activity of the airway rapidly adapting receptors (RARs; n = 9) during pulmonary lymphatic obstruction, plasmapheresis and their combination (P < 0.05). 5. It is concluded that in the rabbit, obstruction of lymphatic drainage from the lung after plasmapheresis causes a reflex increase in respiratory rate. The afferent pathway for this reflex response lies in the vagus nerve and the RARs are likely to be the receptors involved in this response.

Pulmonary chemoreflex and phrenic sympathetic efferents

The pulmonary chemoreflex components such as reactions of phrenic sympathetic neuron (PhSN) activity, phrenic nerve activity, heart rate and blood pressure were tested in chloralose-anesthetized, paralyzed cats. 10 micrograms to 160 micrograms phenylbiguanide (PBG) in 0.9% NaCl was injected into the pulmonary circulation. PBG injected into the right atrium (in 11 of 19 experiments) and into the pulmonary artery (in 5 of 8 experiments), evoked short-latency (1-1.4 sec) dose-dependent increase in PhSN activity accompanied by increase in blood pressure, and followed by decrease in these two variables. In all experiments, activity of the phrenic nerve was depressed, and bradycardia occurred after PBG injection. All responses to PBG injections into the pulmonary artery were abolished following bilateral vagotomy. In the same procedure related to the right atrium after vagotomy, the increases in PhSN activity and blood pressure were also abolished, although a decrease in heart rate, PhSN activity and in the amplitude of phrenic nerve discharges together with an increase in their frequency persisted. Our results suggest that short-latency increase in PhSN activity is a component of pulmonary chemoreflex.

Effect of bradykinin on respiratory rate in anaesthetized rabbits; role of rapidly adapting receptors

1. This study was performed in anaesthetized, spontaneously breathing rabbits: (a) to determine the effect of bradykinin administered into the right atrium on the respiratory rate, and (b) to elucidate the potential role of rapidly adapting receptors (RARs) in mediating this effect. The role of RARs was established by graded cooling of the cervical vagi. The respiratory rate was measured from an intrapleural pressure tracing. 2. Dose-response curves relating right atrial injections of bradykinin (0.25, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 micrograms/kg) to the respiratory rate were established in the control state (i.e. vagi at 37 degrees C). The respiratory rate increased significantly (P < 0.01, ANOVA) from a control value of 51.3 +/- 6.8 breaths/min by 12 +/- 3, 25 +/- 5, 43 +/- 7 and 58 +/- 11% respectively. At doses of 1.0 and 1.5 micrograms/kg I.V., the increase in rate was preceded by apnoea. 3. The dose-response curves were repeated with bolus injections of bradykinin (0.25, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 micrograms/kg) after cooling the cervical vagi to 8-9 degrees C. The increase in respiratory rate was attenuated significantly (P < 0.01 ANOVA). The rate increased from a control value of 27.2 +/- 2.1 breaths/min by 5 +/- 2, 6 +/- 2, 16 +/- 5 and 21 +/- 8% respectively. With vagi cooled, apnoea was increased in duration and occurred at lower doses. On rewarming vagi, the original responses were reestablished. 4. When the study was repeated after bilateral vagotomy, apnoea was abolished but there was a small residual increase in rate. This increase was similar to that seen after cooling the vagi (P > 0.05). 5. RAR (n = 5) activity was recorded from the cervical vagus. Right atrial injections of bradykinin (0.25-1.0 micrograms/kg) stimulated RARs. On cooling the vagi to 8-9 degrees C caudal to the recording site, the increase in activity was blocked. 6. These data support the proposition that bradykinin increases the respiratory rate in rabbits and that this response is, in part, a reflex mediated by RARs. In addition, bradykinin has other secondary effects on respiration: an aponea which is mediated by non-myelinated vagal afferents and a small stimulatory effect on respiration which persists after bilateral vagotomy.