Rotational behaviour of encapsulated pond snail embryos in diverse natural environments

Encapsulated freshwater pond snail embryos display a cilia-driven rotation behaviour that is stimulated by artificially induced hypoxia. Previous studies have suggested that the mixing effect of this behaviour causes enhanced oxygen delivery to embryos within their egg capsules. Despite extensive laboratory-based studies describing this behaviour, it is unclear how this behaviour is used to cope with changes in oxygen concentration and other environmental factors in natural water bodies. We made field measurements of embryo rotation rates in laboratory-reared Helisoma trivolvis embryos placed in ponds of different trophic levels that ranged geographically from the southern Alberta prairie to the Rocky Mountains. Abiotic factors including temperature, pH, conductivity and water oxygen concentration were measured to understand how embryonic rotation is influenced by environmental conditions. Results showed that H. trivolvis embryos exhibit differences in rotational behaviour depending on the environmental conditions. Temperature and oxygen concentration were the primary factors significantly affecting rotation rates. The effect of oxygen concentration on rotation rates was not as widespread as observed under laboratory conditions, probably because the measured oxygen concentrations were above the range that influences embryonic rotation in the laboratory. The rotational behaviour of laboratory-reared Lymnaea stagnalis provided confirmation that embryos of other encapsulated pulmonates exhibit a similar rotational response in natural environments. These results suggest that embryo rotation is influenced by a complex interplay of environmental factors.

Topographic organization of serotonergic and dopaminergic neurons in the cerebral ganglia and their peripheral projection patterns in the head areas of the snail Helix pomatia

The distribution of monoaminergic neurons within the cerebral ganglia was investigated in the pulmonate snail Helix pomatia. Simultaneous serotonin and tyrosine hydroxylase double immunostaining revealed that the immunoreactive cell groups are concentrated in a putative monoaminergic center on the ventral surface of the cerebral ganglia. Simultaneous cobalt (Co)- and nickel (Ni)-lysine backfills of cerebral nerves were combined with 5, 6-dihydroxytryptamine pigment-labelling of serotonergic neurons, or with fluorescence immunocytochemistry of dopaminergic neurons. This showed that the serotonergic and dopaminergic cell groups can be divided into smaller subgroups on the basis of their axonal projections into different cerebral nerves. These subgroups show a topographic organization within the serotonergic and dopaminergic neuronal clusters. In the serotonergic system, the different regions of the head are represented in a rostrocaudal direction, whereas a caudorostral organization is characteristic for the dopaminergic system. No serotonin- or dopamine-immunoreative cell bodies but numerous fibers were observed in the head areas, indicating that these are innervated by cerebral monoaminergic neurons and show different innervation patterns. Serotonin-immunoreactive fibers mostly innervate muscle fibers, whereas dopamine-immunoreactive processes do not innervate effector cells, but terminate within the nerve branches of the head areas. On the basis of their innervation pattern, we suggest that dopaminergic neurons may take part in en route modulation of sensory afferent and efferent processes in an as yet unknown manner. The serotonergic neurons, on the other hand, may play a direct role in the modulation of muscle function.

Early development of an identified serotonergic neuron in Helisoma trivolvis embryos: serotonin expression, de-expression, and uptake

In early-stage embryos of Helisoma trivolvis, a bilateral pair of identified neurons (ENC1) express serotonin and project primary descending neurites that ramify in the pedal region of the embryo prior to the formation of central ganglia. Pharmacological studies suggest that serotonin released from ENC1 acts in an autoregulatory pathway to regulate its own neurite branching and in a paracrine or synaptic pathway to regulate the activity of pedal ciliary cells. In the present study, several key features of early ENC1 development were characterized as a necessary foundation for further experimental studies on the mechanisms underlying ENC1 development and its physiological role during embryogenesis. ENC1 morphology was determined by confocal microscopy of serotonin-immunostained embryos and by differential-interference contrast (DIC) microscopy of live embryos. The soma was located at an anteriolateral superficial position and contained several distinguishing features, including a large spherical nucleus with prominent central nucleolus, large granules in the apical cytoplasm, a broad apical dendrite ending in a sensory-like structure at the embryonic surface, and a ventral neurite. ENC1 first expressed serotonin immunoreactivity around stage E13, followed immediately by the appearance of an immunoreactive neurite (stage E14). Both the intensity of immunoreactivity and primary neurite length were consistently greater in the right ENC1 at early stages. Serotonin uptake, as indicated by 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine-induced fluorescence, first occurred between stages E18 and E25. At later stages of embryogenesis (after stage E65), serotonin immunoreactivity disappeared, whereas serotonin uptake and normal cell morphology were retained.

Pharmacological characterization of a serotonin receptor involved in an early embryonic behavior of Helisoma trivolvis

In contrast to the abundance of information on the many physiological and developmental actions of serotonin in molluscan nervous systems, comparatively little is known about the serotonin receptors involved in these responses. Embryos of the pulmonate gastropod, Helisoma trivolvis, display a cilia-driven rotational behavior that is regulated by endogenous serotonin. In the present study, two functional assays were used to determine some of the pharmacological properties of the receptors that mediate the cilio-excitatory action of serotonin. Time-lapse video microscopy was used to measure whole embryo rotation rate and cilia beat frequency in isolated cells. In dose-response experiments, serotonin was approximately 10 times more potent in stimulating cilia beat frequency over embryo rotation. In rotation experiments, 5-carboxyamidotryptamine and methysergide had effective agonist activity in dose ranges similar to that of serotonin (1 to 100 microM). In contrast, 8-hydroxydipropylaminotetralin HBr (8-OH-DPAT) displayed agonist activity of lower potency and effectiveness. Several compounds displayed antagonist activity in the 1 to 100 microM dose range, including mianserin, spiperone, ritanserin, 1-(1-naphthyl)piperazine, and propranolol. alpha-Methylserotonin had mixed agonist-antagonist activity, and metoclopramide, MDL-72222, and ketanserin were inactive. Experiments on isolated cells suggested that the extremely effective antagonism displayed by mianserin in the embryo rotation assay was due to its specific activity at ciliary serotonin receptors. These results implicate the presence of a novel serotonin receptor on embryonic ciliated cells that is pharmacologically distinct from those previously characterized in vertebrate or invertebrate systems.

Effects of serotonin on intracellular calcium in embryonic and adult Helisoma neurons

The neurotransmitter serotonin has been shown to regulate neurite outgrowth in many embryonic and adult Helisoma neurons. To determine whether intracellular calcium concentration is also regulated by serotonin in large numbers of neurons, the calcium indicator Fura 2 was used to measure intracellular calcium in mass-dissociated cultures of embryonic and adult neurons. Comparisons between embryonic and adult neurons revealed that embryonic neurons have a narrow population distribution of rest intracellular calcium levels around relatively low values. In contrast, the population distribution for adult neurons covered a much wider range of rest calcium concentrations. In both embryonic and adult cultures, serotonin induced a shift in the population distribution of calcium concentrations to higher levels, and increased the mean and median calcium concentrations. Analysis of individual adult neurons prior to and following the addition of serotonin revealed that approximately 50% of the neurons responded with an increase in calcium concentration. In contrast, there was no evidence of a serotonin-induced decrease in calcium concentration in any neurons. Since the percentage of neurons responding to serotonin in this study is very similar to the percentage that responded in previous studies on neurite outgrowth, these data support the hypothesis that an increase in intracellular calcium is a common intermediate step in the regulation of neurite outgrowth by serotonin throughout the Helisoma nervous system.

Characterization and development of rotational behavior in Helisoma embryos: role of endogenous serotonin

Cilia-driven rotational behavior displayed by embryos of the pond snail Helisoma trivolvis was characterized in terms of its behavioral subcomponents, developmental changes, and response to exogenous serotonin. Rotation was found to be a complex behavior characterized by four parameters; rotational direction, rotation rate, rotational surges, and periods of inactivity. These parameters all exhibited characteristic developmental changes from embryonic stage E15 through stage E30. Notably, both rotation rate and frequency of rotational surges increased from stage E15 to E25 and declined to an intermediate level by stage E30. It appeared that the developmental increase in overall rotation rate was caused primarily by an increase in surge frequency, rather than an increase in the rate of nonsurge rotation. Immersion of embryos inserotonin-containing pond water resulted in a dose-dependent, reversible increase in rotation rate as well as a dose-dependent, reversible decrease in surge frequency. The serotonin antagonist, mianserin, abolished the excitatory effect of exogenous serotonin. Furthermore, application of mianserin alone reduced rotation rate and virtually abolished rotational surges. Taken together, these pharmacological results suggest that endogenous serotonin is responsible for generating rotational surges. Given that early embryos contain only a single pair of serotonergic neurons (Goldberg and Kater, 1989) during the stages when rotational surges are expressed, these results also prompt the hypothesis that these neurons, embryonic neurons C1, act as cilioexcitatory motor neurons during embryonic development.

Determination of gamma-glutamyl conjugates of monoamines by means of high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection and application to gastropod tissues

Catabolism of aminergic neurotransmitters in gastropods appears to be primarily by means of gamma-glutamyl conjugation rather than by oxidative deamination as is typical of vertebrates. High-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection was used to develop a method for the routine measurement of gamma-glutamyl conjugates of dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine in gastropod tissues.

Novel effects of serotonin on neurite outgrowth in neurons cultured from embryos of Helisoma trivolvis

The neurotransmitter serotonin has been shown to inhibit neurite outgrowth in specific identified neurons isolated from adult Helisoma. While in vivo experiments on Helisoma embryos have supported the hypothesis that endogenous serotonin regulates neurite outgrowth during embryonic development, direct effects of serotonin on embryonic neurons have not been measured. In the present study, cultures of dissociated embryonic neurons were used to test the direct actions of serotonin on developing embryonic neurons. Serotonin arrested neurite outgrowth in a significant percentage of elongating neurites in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, analysis of neurons with stable, nonelongating neurites revealed a novel response. Serotonin caused the reinitiation of neurite outgrowth in a significant percentage of nonelongating neurites. The arrestment of outgrowth and reinitiation of outgrowth occurred in similar percentages of elongating and nonelongating neurites, respectively. Parallel experiments on cultures of dissociated adult neurons were carried out to determine whether serotonin could also induce both inhibitory and stimulatory responses in adult cells. Serotonin arrested neurite outgrowth in a similar percentage of neurites to that observed in cultures of embryonic neurons. In contrast, serotonin did not reinitiate neurite outgrowth in a significant percentage of adult neurites. These data support the hypothesis that serotonin regulates neurite outgrowth in developing embryonic neurons. Furthermore, only some of these regulatory effects appear to be conserved from embryonic to adult neurons.