Progesterone treatment abolishes exogenously expressed ionic currents in Xenopus oocytes

Comparison between low, moderate, and high intensity aerobic training with equalized loads on biomarkers and performance in rats

This study investigated the physiological and molecular responses of Wistar Hannover rats, submitted to three 5-week chronic training models, with similar training loads. Twenty-four Wistar Hanover rats were randomly divided into four groups: control (n = 6), low-intensity training (Z1; n = 6), moderate-intensity training (Z2; n = 6) and high-intensity training (Z3; n = 6). The three exercise groups performed a 5-week running training three times a week, with the same prescribed workload but the intensity and the volume were different between groups. An increase in maximal speed was observed after four weeks of training for the three groups that trained, with no difference between groups. Higher rest glycogen was also observed in the soleus muscle after training for the exercise groups compared to the control group. We also found that the Z2 group had a higher protein content of total and phosphorylated GSK3-β compared to the control group after five weeks of training. In conclusion, the present study shows that five weeks of treadmill training based on intensity zones 1, 2, and 3 improved performance and increased resting glycogen in the soleus muscle, therefore intensity modulation does not change the training program adaptation since the different program loads are equalized.

Dissociation of AMP-activated protein kinase and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling in skeletal muscle

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is widely recognized as an important regulator of glucose transport in skeletal muscle. The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) has been proposed to be a component of AMPK-mediated signaling. Here we used several different models of altered AMPK activity to determine whether p38 MAPK is a downstream intermediate of AMPK-mediated signaling in skeletal muscle. First, L6 myoblasts and myotubes were treated with AICAR, an AMPK stimulator. AMPK phosphorylation was significantly increased, but there was no change in p38 MAPK phosphorylation. Similarly, AICAR incubation of isolated rat extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles did not increase p38 phosphorylation. Next, we used transgenic mice expressing an inactive form of the AMPKalpha2 catalytic subunit in skeletal muscle (AMPKalpha2i TG mice). AMPKalpha2i TG mice did not exhibit any defect in basal or contraction-induced p38 MAPK phosphorylation. We also used transgenic mice expressing an activating mutation in the AMPKgamma1 subunit (gamma1R70Q TG mice). Despite activated AMPK, basal p38 MAPK phosphorylation was not different between wild type and gamma1R70Q TG mice. In addition, muscle contraction-induced p38 MAPK phosphorylation was significantly blunted in the gamma1R70Q TG mice. In conclusion, increasing AMPK activity by AICAR and AMPKgamma1 mutation does not increase p38 MAPK phosphorylation in skeletal muscle. Furthermore, AMPKalpha2i TG mice lacking contraction-stimulated AMPK activity have normal p38 MAPK phosphorylation. These results suggest that p38 MAPK is not a downstream component of AMPK-mediated signaling in skeletal muscle.

Calcium signaling differentiation during Xenopus oocyte maturation

Ca(2+) is the universal signal for egg activation at fertilization in all sexually reproducing species. The Ca(2+) signal at fertilization is necessary for egg activation and exhibits specialized spatial and temporal dynamics. Eggs acquire the ability to produce the fertilization-specific Ca(2+) signal during oocyte maturation. However, the mechanisms regulating Ca(2+) signaling differentiation during oocyte maturation remain largely unknown. At fertilization, Xenopus eggs produce a cytoplasmic Ca(2+) (Ca(2+)(cyt)) rise that lasts for several minutes, and is required for egg activation. Here, we show that during oocyte maturation Ca(2+) transport effectors are tightly modulated. The plasma membrane Ca(2+) ATPase (PMCA) is completely internalized during maturation, and is therefore unable to extrude Ca(2+) out of the cell. Furthermore, IP(3)-dependent Ca(2+) release is required for the sustained Ca(2+)(cyt) rise in eggs, showing that Ca(2+) that is pumped into the ER leaks back out through IP(3) receptors. This apparent futile cycle allows eggs to maintain elevated cytoplasmic Ca(2+) despite the limited available Ca(2+) in intracellular stores. Therefore, Ca(2+) signaling differentiates in a highly orchestrated fashion during Xenopus oocyte maturation endowing the egg with the capacity to produce a sustained Ca(2+)(cyt) transient at fertilization, which defines the egg's competence to activate and initiate embryonic development.

Beta-adrenoceptors, but not alpha-adrenoceptors, stimulate AMP-activated protein kinase in brown adipocytes independently of uncoupling protein-1

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Brown adipocytes provide a potentially important model system for understanding AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) regulation, where adrenergic stimulation leads to mitochondrial uncoupling through uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1) activity. AMPK is a sensor of energy homeostasis and has been implicated in glucose and lipid metabolism in several insulin-sensitive tissues. The aim of this study was to characterise the potential role of AMPK in adrenergically mediated glucose uptake and to find out whether UCP1 is involved in the adrenergic activation of AMPK.

METHODS

We used primary brown adipocytes differentiated in culture and measured AMPK phosphorylation and glucose uptake following adrenergic activation.

RESULTS

Treatment of adipocytes with noradrenaline (norepinephrine) caused phosphorylation of AMPK via beta-adrenoceptors and not alpha(1)- or alpha(2)-adrenoceptors. This effect was not beta(3)-adrenoceptor specific, since responses remained intact in adipocytes from beta(3)-adrenoceptor knock-out mice. These effects were also mimicked by forskolin and cAMP analogues. Treatment of cells with adenine 8-beta-D-arabinofuranoside, an AMPK inhibitor, partially blocked beta-adrenoceptor-mediated increases in glucose uptake. Brown adipocytes are characterised by the production of UCP1, which can uncouple the mitochondria. Using adipocytes from Ucp1(+/+) and Ucp1(-/-) mice, we showed that noradrenaline-mediated phosphorylation of AMPK does not require the presence or activity of UCP1.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

These results suggest a pathway where increases in cAMP mediated by beta-adrenoceptors leads to activation of AMPK in brown adipocytes, which contributes in part to beta-adrenoceptor-mediated increases in glucose uptake, an effect independent of the presence or function of UCP1.

AMP-activated protein kinase alpha2 activity is not essential for contraction- and hyperosmolarity-induced glucose transport in skeletal muscle

To examine the role of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in muscle glucose transport, we generated muscle-specific transgenic mice (TG) carrying cDNAs of inactive alpha2 (alpha2i TG) and alpha1 (alpha1i TG) catalytic subunits. Extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles from wild type and TG mice were isolated and subjected to a series of in vitro incubation experiments. In alpha2i TG mice basal alpha2 activity was barely detectable, whereas basal alpha1 activity was only partially reduced. Known AMPK stimuli including 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-beta-4-ribofuranoside (AICAR), rotenone (a Complex I inhibitor), dinitrophenol (a mitochondrial uncoupler), muscle contraction, and sorbitol (producing hyperosmolar shock) did not increase AMPK alpha2 activity in alpha2i TG mice, whereas alpha1 activation was attenuated by only 30-50%. Glucose transport was measured in vitro using isolated EDL muscles from alpha2i TG mice. AICAR- and rotenone-stimulated glucose transport was fully inhibited in alpha2i TG mice; however, the lack of AMPK alpha2 activity had no effect on contraction- or sorbitol-induced glucose transport. Similar to these observations in vitro, contraction-stimulated glucose transport, assessed in vivo by 2-deoxy-d-[(3)H]glucose incorporation into EDL, tibialis anterior, and gastrocnemius muscles, was normal in alpha2i TG mice. Thus, AMPK alpha2 activation is essential for some, but not all, insulin-independent glucose transport. Muscle contraction- and hyperosmolarity-induced glucose transport may be regulated by a redundant mechanism in which AMPK alpha2 is one of multiple signaling pathways.

Ion Channel Development, Spontaneous Activity, and Activity-Dependent Development in Nerve and Muscle Cells

At specific stages of development, nerve and muscle cells generate spontaneous electrical activity that is required for normal maturation of intrinsic excitability and synaptic connectivity. The patterns of this spontaneous activity are not simply immature versions of the mature activity, but rather are highly specialized to initiate and control many aspects of neuronal development. The configuration of voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels that are expressed early in development regulate the timing and waveform of this activity. They also regulate Ca2+influx during spontaneous activity, which is the first step in triggering activity-dependent developmental programs. For these reasons, the properties of voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels expressed by developing neurons and muscle cells often differ markedly from those of adult cells. When viewed from this perspective, the reasons for complex patterns of ion channel emergence and regression during development become much clearer.

Electrophysiological, mechanosensitive responses of Xenopus laevis oocytes to direct, isotonic increase in intracellular volume

An intra-oocyte injection method for obtaining the electrophysiological response of follicle-enclosed Xenopus laevis oocytes to an increase in intracellular volume (i.e. stretch) without changing the extracellular medium is described. The response comprised a 'stretch-activated' (SA) current which was evoked by injection of an isotonic 14-70 nl droplet and had a transient, smooth profile. Ionic substitution experiments revealed that the current was carried mainly by Na(+), K(+) and Cl(-) and had a reversal potential of about -2 mV. A similar result was obtained from experiments in which the holding potential was varied between -40 and +10 mV whilst repeatedly inducing the SA current. On average, the channel was blocked 60% by 10 microM gadolinium chloride, 58% by 50 microM amiloride, 11% by 50 microM 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2, 2'-disulfonic acid and 63% by 50 microM 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanato-stilbene-2-2'-disulfonic acid. Maturation of the oocytes with 100 microM progesterone reduced the mechanosensitivity 12-fold. This injection technique is compared with other methods of eliciting mechanosensitive (MS) currents in X. laevis oocytes. These observed characteristics of the SA current are discussed in relation to the oocytes' endogenous MS cation and anion channels.

A novel vasopressin-induced transcript promotes MAP kinase activation and ENaC downregulation

In the principal cell of the renal collecting duct, vasopressin regulates the expression of a gene network responsible for sodium and water reabsorption through the regulation of the water channel and the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). We have recently identified a novel vasopressin-induced transcript (VIT32) that encodes for a 142 amino acid vasopressin-induced protein (VIP32), which has no homology with any protein of known function. The Xenopus oocyte expression system revealed two functions: (i) when injected alone, VIT32 cRNA rapidly induces oocyte meiotic maturation through the activation of the maturation promoting factor, the amphibian homolog of the universal M phase trigger Cdc2/cyclin; and (ii) when co-injected with the ENaC, VIT32 cRNA selectively downregulates channel activity, but not channel cell surface expression. In the kidney principal cell, VIP32 may be involved in the downregulation of transepithelial sodium transport observed within a few hours after vasopressin treatment. VIP32 belongs to a novel gene family ubiquitously expressed in oocyte and somatic cells that may be involved in G to M transition and cell cycling.

AMP-activated protein kinase suppresses protein synthesis in rat skeletal muscle through down-regulated mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is viewed as an energy sensor that acts to modulate glucose uptake and fatty acid oxidation in skeletal muscle. Given that protein synthesis is a high energy-consuming process, it may be transiently depressed during cellular energy stress. Thus, the intent of this investigation was to examine whether AMPK activation modulates the translational control of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle. Injections of 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide 1-beta-d-ribonucleoside (AICAR) were used to activate AMPK in male rats. The activity of alpha1 AMPK remained unchanged in gastrocnemius muscle from AICAR-treated animals compared with controls, whereas alpha2 AMPK activity was significantly increased (51%). AICAR treatment resulted in a reduction in protein synthesis to 45% of the control value. This depression was associated with decreased activation of protein kinases in the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signal transduction pathway as evidenced by reduced phosphorylation of protein kinase B on Ser(473), mTOR on Ser(2448), ribosomal protein S6 kinase on Thr(389), and eukaryotic initiation factor eIF4E-binding protein on Thr(37). A reduction in eIF4E associated with eIF4G to 10% of the control value was also noted. In contrast, eIF2B activity remained unchanged in response to AICAR treatment and therefore would not appear to contribute to the depression in protein synthesis. This is the first investigation to demonstrate changes in translation initiation and skeletal muscle protein synthesis in response to AMPK activation.

Induction of maturation-promoting factor during Xenopus oocyte maturation uncouples Ca(2+) store depletion from store-operated Ca(2+) entry

During oocyte maturation, eggs acquire the ability to generate specialized Ca(2+) signals in response to sperm entry. Such Ca(2+) signals are crucial for egg activation and the initiation of embryonic development. We examined the regulation during Xenopus oocyte maturation of store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE), an important Ca(2+) influx pathway in oocytes and other nonexcitable cells. We have previously shown that SOCE inactivates during Xenopus oocyte meiosis. SOCE inactivation may be important in preventing premature egg activation. In this study, we investigated the correlation between SOCE inactivation and the Mos-mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-maturation-promoting factor (MPF) kinase cascade, which drives Xenopus oocyte maturation. SOCE inactivation at germinal vesicle breakdown coincides with an increase in the levels of MAPK and MPF. By differentially inducing Mos, MAPK, and MPF, we demonstrate that the activation of MPF is necessary for SOCE inactivation during oocyte maturation. In contrast, sustained high levels of Mos kinase and the MAPK cascade have no effect on SOCE activation. We further show that preactivated SOCE is not inactivated by MPF, suggesting that MPF does not block Ca(2+) influx through SOCE channels, but rather inhibits coupling between store depletion and SOCE activation.