NADH/NAD redox state of cytoplasmic glycolytic compartments in vascular smooth muscle

Evaluation of the combined effects of manganese and thermal stress on the metabolic capacities of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus)

In Northern Canada, pollution from mining discharges represents a significant environmental stressor for aquatic organisms. Variations in water temperature constitute another source of stress for fish. Although numerous studies have investigated the effects of environmental stressors on fish physiology, research specifically addressing their impact on energy metabolism pathways remains limited. In this study, we investigated the effects of manganese (Mn), thermal acclimation, and their combination on cellular energy metabolism pathways in Arctic charr, a cold-water stenotherm. Juvenile charr were acclimatized to two contrasting temperatures (7 °C and 16 °C) for two weeks. Thereafter, half of the specimens where exposed to Mn (1 mg/L) for eight weeks. After 56 days, mortality was higher in fish acclimatized to 16 °C compared to 7 °C. Trace metal analysis performed by ICP-AES showed that bioaccumulation of Mn in gills and kidney was higher at 7 °C than at 16 °C, while the bioaccumulation of Mn in liver and muscle was not affected by temperature. Enzyme assays performed in liver and muscle showed a decrease in aerobic capacity and an increase in glycolytic capacity caused by Mn combined with a high temperature. Hepatic cytochrome C oxidase activity was significantly lower in fish acclimatized at 16 °C and exposed to Mn compared to other treatments. Hepatic citrate synthase activity showed a decrease in fish from the 16 °C and Mn treatment compared to those at 7 °C without Mn exposure. In both tissues, phosphofructokinase activity increased in fish acclimatized at 16 °C and exposed to Mn compared to both treatments at 7 °C. Hepatic lactate dehydrogenase activity was lower at 16 °C than at 7 °C in fish from the control treatment. The activity of β-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase was unaffected by temperature or Mn. These results suggest that Mn, combined with high temperature, may affect mitochondrial function leading to a decrease in aerobic capacity. In response to the decline of cellular respiration capacity, metabolic pathways responded differently. Aerobic glycolysis was stimulated, while lipid metabolism showed no metabolic adjustment. This study represents one of the first steps towards understanding Mn toxicity in the context of climate change in a cold-water stenothermic species, and its impact on fish health and metabolism.

Metabolic Responses to Redox Stress in Vascular Cells

Significance: Redox stress underlies numerous vascular disease mechanisms. Metabolic adaptability is essential for vascular cells to preserve energy and redox homeostasis. Recent Advances: Single-cell technologies and multiomic studies demonstrate significant metabolic heterogeneity among vascular cells in health and disease. Increasing evidence shows that reductive or oxidative stress can induce metabolic reprogramming of vascular cells. A recent example is intracellular L-2-hydroxyglutarate accumulation in response to hypoxic reductive stress, which attenuates the glucose flux through glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration in pulmonary vascular cells and provides protection against further reductive stress. Critical Issues: Regulation of cellular redox homeostasis is highly compartmentalized and complex. Vascular cells rely on multiple metabolic pathways, but the precise connectivity among these pathways and their regulatory mechanisms is only partially defined. There is also a critical need to understand better the cross-regulatory mechanisms between the redox system and metabolic pathways as perturbations in either systems or their cross talk can be detrimental. Future Directions: Future studies are needed to define further how multiple metabolic pathways are wired in vascular cells individually and as a network of closely intertwined processes given that a perturbation in one metabolic compartment often affects others. There also needs to be a comprehensive understanding of how different types of redox perturbations are sensed by and regulate different cellular metabolic pathways with specific attention to subcellular compartmentalization. Lastly, integration of dynamic changes occurring in multiple metabolic pathways and their cross talk with the redox system is an important goal in this multiomics era. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 41,793-817.

The synergism of cytosolic acidosis and reduced NAD+/NADH ratio is responsible for lactic acidosis-induced vascular smooth muscle cell impairment in sepsis

BACKGROUND

During sepsis, serve vascular dysfunctions lead to life-threatening multiple organ failure, due to vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) impairments, resulting in vasoplegia, hypotension and hypoperfusion. In addition, septic patients have an altered cell metabolism that leads to lactic acidosis. Septic patients suffering from lactic acidosis have a high risk of mortality. In addition, septic survivors are at risk of secondary vascular disease. The underlying mechanisms of whether and how lactic acidosis leads to the changes in VSMCs is not well understood. The aim of this study was to comprehensively investigate the effect of lactic acidosis on VSMCs and additionally compare the effects with those induced by pure acidosis and sodium lactate.

METHODS

Primary human aortic smooth muscle cells (HAoSMCs) were treated for 48 h with lactic acidosis (LA_pH 6.8), hydrochloric acid (HCl_pH 6.8), sodium lactate (Na+-lactate_pH 7.4) and the respective controls (ctrl._pH 7.4; hyperosmolarity control: mannitol_pH 7.4) and comparatively analyzed for changes in (i) transcriptome, (ii) energy metabolism, and (iii) phenotype.

RESULTS

Both types of acidosis led to comparable and sustained intracellular acidification without affecting cell viability. RNA sequencing and detailed transcriptome analysis revealed more significant changes for lactic acidosis than for hydrochloric acidosis, with lactate being almost ineffective, suggesting qualitative and quantitative synergism of acidosis and lactate. Bioinformatic predictions in energy metabolism and phenotype were confirmed experimentally. Lactic acidosis resulted in strong inhibition of glycolysis, glutaminolysis, and altered mitochondrial respiration which reduced cellular ATP content, likely due to increased TXNIP expression and altered NAD+/NADH ratio. Hydrochloric acidosis induced significantly smaller effects without changing the NAD+/NADH ratio, with the ATP content remaining constant. These metabolic changes led to osteo-/chondrogenic/senescent transdifferentiation of VSMCs, with the effect being more pronounced in lactic acidosis than in pure acidosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, lactic acidosis exerted a much stronger effect on energy metabolism than pure acidosis, whereas lactate had almost no effect, reflecting the qualitative and quantitative synergism of acidosis and lactate. As a consequence, lactic acidosis may lead to acute functional impairments of VSMC, sustained perturbations of the transcriptome and cellular dedifferentiation. Moreover, these effects may contribute to the acute and prolonged vascular pathomechanisms in septic patients.

Sirtuin-dependent metabolic and epigenetic regulation of macrophages during tuberculosis

Macrophages are the preeminent phagocytic cells which control multiple infections. Tuberculosis a leading cause of death in mankind and the causative organism Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infects and persists in macrophages. Macrophages use reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) and autophagy to kill and degrade microbes including MTB. Glucose metabolism regulates the macrophage-mediated antimicrobial mechanisms. Whereas glucose is essential for the growth of cells in immune cells, glucose metabolism and its downsteam metabolic pathways generate key mediators which are essential co-substrates for post-translational modifications of histone proteins, which in turn, epigenetically regulate gene expression. Herein, we describe the role of sirtuins which are NAD+-dependent histone histone/protein deacetylases during the epigenetic regulation of autophagy, the production of ROS/RNS, acetyl-CoA, NAD+, and S-adenosine methionine (SAM), and illustrate the cross-talk between immunometabolism and epigenetics on macrophage activation. We highlight sirtuins as emerging therapeutic targets for modifying immunometabolism to alter macrophage phenotype and antimicrobial function.

Pyridine nucleotide redox potential in coronary smooth muscle couples myocardial blood flow to cardiac metabolism

Adequate oxygen delivery to the heart during stress is essential for sustaining cardiac function. Acute increases in myocardial oxygen demand evoke coronary vasodilation and enhance perfusion via functional upregulation of smooth muscle voltage-gated K⁺ (Kv) channels. Because this response is controlled by Kv1 accessory subunits (i.e., Kvβ), which are NAD(P)(H)-dependent aldo-keto reductases, we tested the hypothesis that oxygen demand modifies arterial [NAD(H)]_i, and that resultant cytosolic pyridine nucleotide redox state influences Kv1 activity. High-resolution imaging mass spectrometry and live-cell imaging reveal cardiac workload-dependent increases in NADH:NAD⁺ in intramyocardial arterial myocytes. Intracellular NAD(P)(H) redox ratios reflecting elevated oxygen demand potentiate native coronary Kv1 activity in a Kvβ2-dependent manner. Ablation of Kvβ2 catalysis suppresses redox-dependent increases in Kv1 activity, vasodilation, and the relationship between cardiac workload and myocardial blood flow. Collectively, this work suggests that the pyridine nucleotide sensitivity and enzymatic activity of Kvβ2 controls coronary vasoreactivity and myocardial blood flow during metabolic stress.

Physiological matching of blood flow to the demand for oxygen by the heart is required for sustained cardiac health, yet the underlying mechanisms are obscure. Here, the authors report a key role for acute modifications to the redox state of intracellular pyridine nucleotides in coronary smooth muscle and their impact on voltage-gated K + channels in metabolic vasodilation

Co-Polarized [1-13C]Pyruvate and [1,3-13C2]Acetoacetate Provide a Simultaneous View of Cytosolic and Mitochondrial Redox in a Single Experiment

Cellular redox is intricately linked to energy production and normal cell function. Although the redox states of mitochondria and cytosol are connected by shuttle mechanisms, the redox state of mitochondria may differ from redox in the cytosol in response to stress. However, detecting these differences in functioning tissues is difficult. Here, we employed ¹³C magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and co-polarized [1-¹³C]pyruvate and [1,3-¹³C₂]acetoacetate ([1,3-¹³C₂]AcAc) to monitor production of hyperpolarized (HP) lactate and β-hydroxybutyrate as indicators of cytosolic and mitochondrial redox, respectively. Isolated rat hearts were examined under normoxic conditions, during low-flow ischemia, and after pretreatment with either aminooxyacetate (AOA) or rotenone. All interventions were associated with an increase in [P_i]/[ATP] measured by ³¹P NMR. In well-oxygenated untreated hearts, rapid conversion of HP [1-¹³C]pyruvate to [1-¹³C]lactate and [1,3-¹³C₂]AcAc to [1,3-¹³C₂]β-hydroxybutyrate ([1,3-¹³C₂]β-HB) was readily detected. A significant increase in HP [1,3-¹³C₂]β-HB but not [1-¹³C]lactate was observed in rotenone-treated and ischemic hearts, consistent with an increase in mitochondrial NADH but not cytosolic NADH. AOA treatments did not alter the productions of HP [1-¹³C]lactate or [1,3-¹³C₂]β-HB. This study demonstrates that biomarkers of mitochondrial and cytosolic redox may be detected simultaneously in functioning tissues using co-polarized [1-¹³C]pyruvate and [1,3-¹³C₂]AcAc and ¹³C MRS and that changes in mitochondrial redox may precede changes in cytosolic redox.

Uncovering the Invisible: Mono-ADP-ribosylation Moved into the Spotlight

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-ribosylation is a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-dependent post-translational modification that is found on proteins as well as on nucleic acids. While ARTD1/PARP1-mediated poly-ADP-ribosylation has extensively been studied in the past 60 years, comparably little is known about the physiological function of mono-ADP-ribosylation and the enzymes involved in its turnover. Promising technological advances have enabled the development of innovative tools to detect NAD+ and NAD+/NADH (H for hydrogen) ratios as well as ADP-ribosylation. These tools have significantly enhanced our current understanding of how intracellular NAD dynamics contribute to the regulation of ADP-ribosylation as well as to how mono-ADP-ribosylation integrates into various cellular processes. Here, we discuss the recent technological advances, as well as associated new biological findings and concepts.

Changes in intracellular NAD status affect stomatal development in an abscisic acid-dependent manner

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) plays a central role in redox metabolism in all domains of life. Additional roles in regulating posttranslational protein modifications and cell signaling implicate NAD as a potential integrator of central metabolism and programs regulating stress responses and development. Here we found that NAD negatively impacts stomatal development in cotyledons of Arabidopsis thaliana. Plants with reduced capacity for NAD⁺ transport from the cytosol into the mitochondria or the peroxisomes exhibited reduced numbers of stomatal lineage cells and reduced stomatal density. Cotyledons of plants with reduced NAD⁺ breakdown capacity and NAD⁺ -treated cotyledons also presented reduced stomatal number. Expression of stomatal lineage-related genes was repressed in plants with reduced expression of NAD⁺ transporters as well as in plants treated with NAD⁺ . Impaired NAD⁺ transport was further associated with an induction of abscisic acid (ABA)-responsive genes. Inhibition of ABA synthesis rescued the stomatal phenotype in mutants deficient in intracellular NAD⁺ transport, whereas exogenous NAD⁺ feeding of aba-2 and ost1 seedlings, impaired in ABA synthesis and ABA signaling, respectively, did not impact stomatal number, placing NAD upstream of ABA. Additionally, in vivo measurement of ABA dynamics in seedlings of an ABA-specific optogenetic reporter - ABAleon2.1 - treated with NAD⁺ showed increases in ABA content suggesting that NAD⁺ impacts on stomatal development through ABA synthesis and signaling. Our results demonstrate that intracellular NAD⁺ homeostasis as set by synthesis, breakdown and transport is essential for normal stomatal development, and provide a link between central metabolism, hormone signaling and developmental plasticity.

Metabolic Responses to Reductive Stress

Significance: Reducing equivalents (NAD(P)H and glutathione [GSH]) are essential for maintaining cellular redox homeostasis and for modulating cellular metabolism. Reductive stress induced by excessive levels of reduced NAD⁺ (NADH), reduced NADP⁺ (NADPH), and GSH is as harmful as oxidative stress and is implicated in many pathological processes. Recent Advances: Reductive stress broadens our view of the importance of cellular redox homeostasis and the influences of an imbalanced redox niche on biological functions, including cell metabolism. Critical Issues: The distribution of cellular NAD(H), NADP(H), and GSH/GSH disulfide is highly compartmentalized. Understanding how cells coordinate different pools of redox couples under unstressed and stressed conditions is critical for a comprehensive view of redox homeostasis and stress. It is also critical to explore the underlying mechanisms of reductive stress and its biological consequences, including effects on energy metabolism. Future Directions: Future studies are needed to investigate how reductive stress affects cell metabolism and how cells adapt their metabolism to reductive stress. Whether or not NADH shuttles and mitochondrial nicotinamide nucleotide transhydrogenase enzyme can regulate hypoxia-induced reductive stress is also a worthy pursuit. Developing strategies (e.g., antireductant approaches) to counteract reductive stress and its related adverse biological consequences also requires extensive future efforts.

Hypermetabolism and impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation in mesenteric arteries of type 2 diabetes mellitus db/db mice

Besides being a metabolic disease, diabetes is considered a vascular disease as many of the complications relate to vascular pathologies. The aim of this study was to investigate how vascular tone and reactivity and vascular cell metabolism were affected in type 2 diabetes mellitus and whether β-hydroxybutyrate could have a positive effect as alternative energy substrate. Isolated mesenteric arteries of db/db and control mice were incubated in media containing [U-¹³C]glucose or [U-¹³C]β-hydroxybutyrate, and tissue extracts were analysed by mass spectrometry. Functional characterization was performed by wire myography to assess vasodilation and vasocontraction. Hypermetabolism of glucose and β-hydroxybutyrate was observed for mesenteric arteries of db/db mice; however, hypermetabolism was significant only with β-hydroxybutyrate as energy substrate. The functional characterization showed impaired endothelial-dependent vasodilation in mesenteric arteries of the db/db mice, whereas the contractility was unaffected. This study provides evidence that the endothelial cells are impaired, whereas the vascular smooth muscle cells are more robust and seemed less affected in the db/db mouse. Furthermore, the results indicate that hypermetabolism of energy substrates may be due to adaptive changes in the mesenteric arteries.

ROS production in brown adipose tissue mitochondria: the question of UCP1-dependence

Whether active UCP1 can reduce ROS production in brown-fat mitochondria is presently not settled. The issue is of principal significance, as it can be seen as a proof- or disproof-of-principle concerning the ability of any protein to diminish ROS production through membrane depolarization. We therefore undertook a comprehensive investigation of the significance of UCP1 for ROS production, by comparing the ROS production in brown-fat mitochondria isolated from wildtype mice (that display membrane depolarization) or from UCP1(-/-) mice (with a high membrane potential). We tested the significance of UCP1 for glycerol-3-phosphate-supported ROS production by three methods (fluorescent dihydroethidium and the ESR probe PHH for superoxide, and fluorescent Amplex Red for hydrogen peroxide), and followed ROS production also with succinate, acyl-CoA or pyruvate as substrate. We studied the effects of the reverse electron flow inhibitor rotenone, the UCP1 activity inhibitor GDP, and the uncoupler FCCP. We also examined the effect of a physiologically induced increase in UCP1 amount. We noted GDP effects that were not UCP1-related. We conclude that only ROS production supported by exogenously added succinate was affected by the presence of active UCP1; ROS production supported by any other tested substrate (including endogenously generated succinate) was unaffected. This conclusion indicates that UCP1 is not involved in control of ROS production in brown-fat mitochondria. Extrapolation of these data to other tissues would imply that membrane depolarization may not necessarily decrease physiologically relevant ROS production. This article is a part of a Special Issue entitled: 18th European Bioenergetics Conference (Biochim. Biophys. Acta, Volume 1837, Issue 7, July 2014).

Bang-bang model for regulation of local blood flow

The classical model of metabolic regulation of blood flow in muscle tissue implies the maintenance of basal tone in arterioles of resting muscle and their dilation in response to exercise and/or tissue hypoxia via the evoked production of vasodilator metabolites by myocytes. A century-long effort to identify specific metabolites responsible for explaining active and reactive hyperemia has not been successful. Furthermore, the metabolic theory is not compatible with new knowledge on the role of physiological radicals (e.g., nitric oxide, NO, and superoxide anion, O2 (-) ) in the regulation of microvascular tone. We propose a model of regulation in which muscle contraction and active hyperemia are considered the physiologically normal state. We employ the "bang-bang" or "on/off" regulatory model which makes use of a threshold and hysteresis; a float valve to control the water level in a tank is a common example of this type of regulation. Active bang-bang regulation comes into effect when the supply of oxygen and glucose exceeds the demand, leading to activation of membrane NADPH oxidase, release of O2 (-) into the interstitial space and subsequent neutralization of the interstitial NO. Switching arterioles on/off when local blood flow crosses the threshold is realized by a local cell circuit with the properties of a bang-bang controller, determined by its threshold, hysteresis, and dead-band. This model provides a clear and unambiguous interpretation of the mechanism to balance tissue demand with a sufficient supply of nutrients and oxygen.

Non-invasive in-cell determination of free cytosolic [NAD+]/[NADH] ratios using hyperpolarized glucose show large variations in metabolic phenotypes

Accumulating evidence suggest that the pyridine nucleotide NAD has far wider biological functions than its classical role in energy metabolism. NAD is used by hundreds of enzymes that catalyze substrate oxidation and, as such, it plays a key role in various biological processes such as aging, cell death, and oxidative stress. It has been suggested that changes in the ratio of free cytosolic [NAD(+)]/[NADH] reflects metabolic alterations leading to, or correlating with, pathological states. We have designed an isotopically labeled metabolic bioprobe of free cytosolic [NAD(+)]/[NADH] by combining a magnetic enhancement technique (hyperpolarization) with cellular glycolytic activity. The bioprobe reports free cytosolic [NAD(+)]/[NADH] ratios based on dynamically measured in-cell [pyruvate]/[lactate] ratios. We demonstrate its utility in breast and prostate cancer cells. The free cytosolic [NAD(+)]/[NADH] ratio determined in prostate cancer cells was 4 times higher than in breast cancer cells. This higher ratio reflects a distinct metabolic phenotype of prostate cancer cells consistent with previously reported alterations in the energy metabolism of these cells. As a reporter on free cytosolic [NAD(+)]/[NADH] ratio, the bioprobe will enable better understanding of the origin of diverse pathological states of the cell as well as monitor cellular consequences of diseases and/or treatments.

Sites of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide production during fatty acid oxidation in rat skeletal muscle mitochondria

H2O2 production by skeletal muscle mitochondria oxidizing palmitoylcarnitine was examined under two conditions: the absence of respiratory chain inhibitors and the presence of myxothiazol to inhibit complex III. Without inhibitors, respiration and H2O2 production were low unless carnitine or malate was added to limit acetyl-CoA accumulation. With palmitoylcarnitine alone, H2O2 production was dominated by complex II (44% from site IIF in the forward reaction); the remainder was mostly from complex I (34%, superoxide from site IF). With added carnitine, H2O2 production was about equally shared between complexes I, II, and III. With added malate, it was 75% from complex III (superoxide from site IIIQo) and 25% from site IF. Thus complex II (site IIF in the forward reaction) is a major source of H2O2 production during oxidation of palmitoylcarnitine ± carnitine. Under the second condition (myxothiazol present to keep ubiquinone reduced), the rates of H2O2 production were highest in the presence of palmitoylcarnitine ± carnitine and were dominated by complex II (site IIF in the reverse reaction). About half the rest was from site IF, but a significant portion, ∼40pmol H2O2·min(-1)·mg protein(-1), was not from complex I, II, or III and was attributed to the proteins of β-oxidation (electron-transferring flavoprotein (ETF) and ETF-ubiquinone oxidoreductase). The maximum rate from the ETF system was ∼200pmol H2O2·min(-1)·mg protein(-1) under conditions of compromised antioxidant defense and reduced ubiquinone pool. Thus complex II and the ETF system both contribute to H2O2 productionduring fatty acid oxidation under appropriate conditions.

Role of hyperglycemia-mediated erythrocyte redox state alteration in the development of diabetic retinopathy

PURPOSE

To evaluate erythrocyte redox state and its surrogates in patients with different stages of diabetic retinopathy and their association with cellular metabolic derangement developed in retinal microvascular cells.

METHODS

Sixty type 2 diabetic patients with nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR), 85 patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), and 70 patients with diabetes but without retinopathy were considered as diabetic control (DC) for the study. In addition, 65 normal individuals without diabetes were enrolled as healthy control in this study. Erythrocyte oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate / reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP / NADPH), oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide / reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD / NADH) glutathione, plasma and vitreous lactate, and pyruvate levels were determined by enzymatic reaction-based spectrophotometric assay for the patients and individuals.

RESULT

Erythrocyte NADP+ to NADPH ratio to NADPH ratio was found to be significantly higher among NPDR and PDR patients compared with DC subjects (P < 0.0001). Erythrocyte-reduced glutathione was significantly decreased in patients of NPDR (P = 0.0004) and patients of PDR (P = 0.0157) compared to DC. Erythrocyte NAD to NADH ratio was also significantly decreased in patients of NPDR (P < 0.0001) and PDR (P < 0.0001) compared to DC subjects. Lactate to pyruvate ratio of plasma was elevated significantly in patients with NPDR compared with DC (P < 0.0001) and those having PDR (P = 0.0046). In the vitreous fluid, the lactate to pyruvate ratios were found to be significantly lower in normal individuals without diabetes compared with patients having PDR (P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Hyperglycemia-mediated erythrocyte redox state alterations might be a potential risk factor for the development of NPDR in poorly controlled diabetic subjects.

Biochemical issues in estimation of cytosolic free NAD/NADH ratio

Cytosolic free NAD/NADH ratio is fundamentally important in maintaining cellular redox homeostasis but current techniques cannot distinguish between protein-bound and free NAD/NADH. Williamson et al reported a method to estimate this ratio by cytosolic lactate/pyruvate (L/P) based on the principle of chemical equilibrium. Numerous studies used L/P ratio to estimate the cytosolic free NAD/NADH ratio by assuming that the conversion in cells was at near-equilibrium but not verifying how near it was. In addition, it seems accepted that cytosolic free NAD/NADH ratio was a dependent variable responding to the change of L/P ratio. In this study, we show (1) that the change of lactate/glucose (percentage of glucose that converts to lactate by cells) and L/P ratio could measure the status of conversion between pyruvate + NADH and lactate + NAD that tends to or gets away from equilibrium; (2) that cytosolic free NAD/NADH could be accurately estimated by L/P only when the conversion is at or very close to equilibrium otherwise a calculation error by one order of magnitude could be introduced; (3) that cytosolic free NAD/NADH is stable and L/P is highly labile, that the highly labile L/P is crucial to maintain the homeostasis of NAD/NADH; (4) that cytosolic free NAD/NADH is dependent on oxygen levels. Our study resolved the key issues regarding accurate estimation of cytosolic free NAD/NADH ratio and the relationship between NAD/NADH and L/P.

Imaging brain activation: simple pictures of complex biology

Elucidation of biochemical, physiological, and cellular contributions to metabolic images of brain is important for interpretation of images of brain activation and disease. Discordant brain images obtained with [(14)C]deoxyglucose and [1- or 6-(14)C]glucose were previously ascribed to increased glycolysis and rapid [(14)C]lactate release from tissue, but direct proof of [(14)C]lactate release from activated brain structures is lacking. Analysis of factors contributing to images of focal metabolic activity evoked by monotonic acoustic stimulation of conscious rats reveals that labeled metabolites of [1- or 6-(14)C]glucose are quickly released from activated cells as a result of decarboxylation reactions, spreading via gap junctions, and efflux via lactate transporters. Label release from activated tissue accounts for most of the additional [(14)C]glucose consumed during activation compared to rest. Metabolism of [3,4-(14)C]glucose generates about four times more [(14)C]lactate compared to (14)CO(2) in extracellular fluid, suggesting that most lactate is not locally oxidized. In brain slices, direct assays of lactate uptake from extracellular fluid demonstrate that astrocytes have faster influx and higher transport capacity than neurons. Also, lactate transfer from a single astrocyte to other gap junction-coupled astrocytes exceeds astrocyte-to-neuron lactate shuttling. Astrocytes and neurons have excess capacities for glycolysis, and oxidative metabolism in both cell types rises during sensory stimulation. The energetics of brain activation is quite complex, and the proportion of glucose consumed by astrocytes and neurons, lactate generation by either cell type, and the contributions of both cell types to brain images during brain activation are likely to vary with the stimulus paradigm and activated pathways.

Lactate and shock state: the metabolic view

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The conventional view in severe sepsis or septic shock is that most of the lactate that accumulates in the circulation is due to cellular hypoxia and the onset of anaerobic glycolysis. A number of papers have suggested that lactate formation during sepsis is not due to hypoxia. I discuss this hypothesis and outline the recent advances in the understanding of lactate metabolism in shock.

RECENT FINDINGS

Numerous experimental data have demonstrated that stimulation of aerobic glycolysis - that is, glycolysis not attributable to oxygen deficiency - and glycogenolysis occurs not only in resting, well-oxygenated skeletal muscles but also during experimental haemorrhagic shock and experimental sepsis, and is closely linked to stimulation of sarcolemmal Na+/K+ -ATPase under epinephrine stimulation. A human study of hyperkinetic septic shock demonstrated that skeletal muscle is a leading source of lactate production by exaggerated aerobic glycolysis through Na+/K+ -ATPase stimulation.

SUMMARY

There is increasing evidence that sepsis is accompanied by a hypermetabolic state, with enhanced glycolysis and hyperlactataemia. This should not be rigorously interpreted as an indication of hypoxia. It now appears, at least in the hyperkinetic state, that increased lactate production and concentration as a result of hypoxia are often the exception rather than the rule.

Determination of oxidized and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide in cell monolayers using a single extraction procedure and a spectrophotometric assay

While many investigations measuring oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) have been carried out on several mammalian tissues and blood cells, few reports have dealt with monolayers of cultured cells. Here we show a novel method to measure NAD+ and NADH in monolayers of a neuroblastoma cell line. The method was established by modifying a single extraction procedure originally developed for erythrocytes and an enzymatic cycling assay using a dye that absorbs in visible range. The following modifications were made. (i) Addition of 0.05% of a detergent, Triton X-100, to carbonate-bicarbonate extraction buffer enabled us to accurately measure cellular [NADH]/([NAD+]+[NADH]). (ii) Addition of N-ethyldibenzopyrazine ethyl sulfate salt (phenazine ethosulfate) immediately before the incubation suppressed the gradual decline of the sensitivity of the assay. The procedure presented here provides a simple and inexpensive measurement of NAD+ and NADH in cell monolayers.

Relation between muscle Na+K+ ATPase activity and raised lactate concentrations in septic shock: a prospective study

BACKGROUND

Hyperlactataemia during septic shock is often viewed as evidence of tissue hypoxia. However, this blood disorder is not usually correlated with indicators of perfusion or diminished with increased oxygen delivery. Muscles can generate lactate under aerobic conditions in a process linking glycolytic ATP supply to stimulation of Na+K+ ATPase. Using in-vivo microdialysis, we tested whether inhibition of Na+K+ ATPase can reduce muscle lactate.

METHODS

In 14 patients with septic shock, two microdialysis probes were inserted into the quadriceps muscles and infused with lactate-free Ringer's solution in the absence or presence of 10(-7) mol/L ouabain, a specific inhibitor of Na+K+ ATPase. We measured lactate and pyruvate concentrations in both the dialysate fluid and arterial blood samples.

FINDINGS

All patients had increased blood lactate concentrations (mean 4.0 mmol/L; SD 2.1). Lactate and pyruvate concentrations were consistently higher in muscle than in arteries during the study period, with a mean positive gradient of 1.98 mmol/L (SD 0.2; p=0.001) and 230 micromol/L (30; p=0.01), respectively. Ouabain infusion stopped over production of muscle lactate and pyruvate (p=0.0001). Muscle lactate to pyruvate ratios remained unchanged during ouabain infusion with no differences between blood and muscle.

INTERPRETATION

Skeletal muscle could be a leading source of lactate formation as a result of exaggerated aerobic glycolysis through Na+K+ ATPase stimulation during septic shock. Lactate clearance as an end-point of resuscitation could therefore prove useful.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

In patients with septic shock, a high lactate concentration should be interpreted as a marker of disease, portending a bad outcome. The presence of hyperlactataemia in resuscitated septic patients should not be taken as proof of oxygen debt needing increases in systemic or regional oxygen transport to supranormal values. Lactate, instead of being regarded only as a marker of hypoxia, might be an important metabolic signal.

Pyruvate shuttle in muscle cells: high-affinity pyruvate transport sites insensitive to trans-lactate efflux

The specificity of the transport mechanisms for pyruvate and lactate and their sensitivity to inhibitors were studied in L6 skeletal muscle cells. Trans- and cis-lactate effects on pyruvate transport kinetic parameters were examined. Pyruvate and lactate were transported by a multisite carrier system, i.e., by two families of sites, one with low affinity and high capacity (type I sites) and the other with high affinity and low capacity (type II). The multisite character of transport kinetics was not modified by either hydroxycinnamic acid (CIN) or p-chloromercuribenzylsulfonic acid (PCMBS), which exert different types of inhibition. The transport efficiency (TE) ratios of maximal velocity to the trans-activation dissociation constant (Kt) showed that lactate and pyruvate were preferentially transported by types I and II sites, respectively. The cis-lactate effect was observed with high Ki values for both sites. The trans-lactate effect on pyruvate transport occurred only on type I sites and exhibited an asymmetric interaction pattern (Kt of inward lactate > Kt of outward lactate). The inability of lactate to trans-stimulate type II sites suggests that intracellular lactate cannot recruit these sites. The high-affinity type II sites act as a specific pyruvate shuttle and constitute an essential relay for the intracellular lactate shuttle.