Bojesodok-eum, a herbal prescription, ameliorates acute iInflammation in association with the inhibition of NF-κB-Mediated nitric oxide and proInflammatory cytokine production. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2012;2012:457370. [PMID: 23093981 PMCID: PMC3472669 DOI: 10.1155/2012/457370]

Mucuna laticifera: unprecedented L-dopa content and its role in neurodegenerative and inflammatory conditions

Genus Mucuna encompasses several plant species renowned for their utilization in traditional Ayurvedic medicine for the treatment of Parkinson's disease, chiefly due to their exceptionally high L-dopa content relative to other plants. However, limited information exists regarding Mucuna laticifera, a newly identified species within the Mucuna genus. This study unveils a remarkable L-dopa content of 174.3 mg/g in M. laticifera seeds, surpassing all previously documented Mucuna species. Moreover, this research marks the first documentation of L-dopa, flavonoids, and phenolics within M. laticifera seeds. Furthermore, the aqueous extract derived from these seeds exhibits robust antioxidant properties. Investigation into its anti-inflammatory potential reveals a significant reduction in paw swelling and neutrophil infiltration at inflammatory sites in a carrageenan-induced rat model. Gene expression analysis utilizing a rat paw model demonstrates that the seed extract significantly downregulates the expression of various inflammation-related genes compared to carrageenan-treated rats. Collectively, these findings clearly substantiate the anti-inflammatory activity of M. laticifera seed extract. The exceptional L-dopa content combined with its anti-inflammatory properties position M. laticifera seeds as a promising therapeutic option for neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's, as well as various inflammatory conditions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-024-03969-w.

Anti-inflammatory activities of amber extract in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages

Amber is a type of fossil tree resin with several bioactive properties and has been traced in traditional medicines used in Russia and China. However, its anti-inflammatory activities are poorly characterized. Here, the anti-inflammatory effects of the extract of amber mined from Kaliningrad, Russia was investigated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells. The effect of the amber extract on cell viability was evaluated by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay. Further, its effects on the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), NO, and inflammatory cytokines were assessed by 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate staining, Griess test, and cytokine enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, respectively. Western blotting and real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis were performed to assess the mRNA and protein expression levels of the inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) interleukin-6 (IL-6), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). The translocation of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65 subunit was observed by immunofluorescent staining. Amber extract negatively regulated the LPS-induced differentiation of RAW 264.7 cells to dendritic-like cells and reduced the LPS-induced increase in ROS and NO levels. It also reduced the level of mRNA and protein expressions of TNF-α, IL-6, COX-2, and iNOS in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages, in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, amber extract suppressed the nuclear translocation of the NF-κB p65 subunit. These findings suggest that the potent anti-inflammatory effect of the amber extract is mediated by the inhibition of the NF-κB p65 signaling pathway. Collectively, this study renders amber extract as a potential pharmacological alternative to treat inflammation-related diseases.

Dexmedetomidine ameliorates postoperative cognitive dysfunction by inhibiting Toll-like receptor 4 signaling in aged mice

Our study aimed to explore the molecular mechanisms involved in the improvement of postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) by dexmedetomidine (DEX). BV2 microglia cells were cultured under normal condition, DEX exposure (0.1 μg/mL), and lipopolysacchride (LPS) treatment (0.1 μg/mL) or with pretreatment of DEX before LPS incubation. For BV2 microglia cells, LPS induced markedly increased release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α]) and expressions of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), while DEX pretreatment inhibited the LPS-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and expressions of TLR4 and NF-κB. The spatial memory function was impaired in the aged mice following partial hepatectomy since the percentage of time spent in the target quadrant and the number of crossings over the former platform location were reduced. Pretreatment of DEX may attenuate neuroinflammation and improve POCD in aged mice through inhibiting the TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway in the hippocampus.

Network Pharmacology-Based Approaches of Rheum undulatum Linne and Glycyrriza uralensis Fischer Imply their Regulation of Liver Failure with Hepatic Encephalopathy in Mice

Rheum undulatum and Glycyrrhiza uralensis have been used as supplementary ingredients in various herbal medicines. They have been reported to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects and, therefore, have potential in the treatment and prevention of various liver diseases. Considering that hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is often associated with chronic liver failure, we investigated whether an R. undulatum and G. uralensis extract mixture (RG) could reduce HE. We applied systems-based pharmacological tools to identify the active ingredients in RG and the pharmacological targets of RG by examining mechanism-of-action profiles. A CCl₄-induced HE mouse model was used to investigate the therapeutic mechanisms of RG on HE. We successfully identified seven bioactive ingredients in RG with 40 potential targets. Based on an integrated target–disease network, RG was predicted to be effective in treating neurological diseases. In animal models, RG consistently relieved HE symptoms by protecting blood–brain barrier permeability via downregulation of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and upregulation of claudin-5. In addition, RG inhibited mRNA expression levels of both interleukin (IL)-1β and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1. Based on our results, RG is expected to function various biochemical processes involving neuroinflammation, suggesting that RG may be considered a therapeutic agent for treating not only chronic liver disease but also HE.

Treatment with Peanut Sprout Root Extract Alleviates Inflammation in a Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Mouse Macrophage Cell Line by Inhibiting the MAPK Signaling Pathway

Inflammation is a key response of the immune system to infection but aberrant inflammatory activity can lead to tissue damage and inflammatory diseases. Increasing evidence suggests that peanut sprout root extract (PSRE) has anti-inflammatory activity, and the aim of this study is therefore to investigate the effects of PSRE on the inflammatory response and the molecular mechanisms underpinning this effect in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Using a combination of cell viability, ELISA, and nitric oxide (NO) assays, together with Western blotting, we showed that PSRE effectively inhibited NO production in LPS-stimulated cells and significantly reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, IL-1β, and PGE2, at a dose of 200 µg/mL of PSRE, whereas TNF-α expression tended to decrease under PSRE treatment. We also confirmed a dose-dependent and significant inhibition of iNOS and COX-2 protein expression. In addition, PSRE treatment induced anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the phosphorylation of MAPKs (ERK, JNK, and p38) and NF-κB activation. Our results indicate that the anti-inflammatory properties of PSRE may result from inhibition of the MAPK pathways, which are known promoters of cytokine secretion.

Atractylodis Rhizoma Alba Attenuates Neuroinflammation in BV2 Microglia upon LPS Stimulation by Inducing HO-1 Activity and Inhibiting NF-κB and MAPK

Microglial activation and the resulting neuroinflammation are associated with a variety of brain diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Thus, the control of microglial activation is an important factor in the development of drugs that can treat or prevent inflammation-related neurodegenerative disorders. Atractylodis Rhizoma Alba (ARA) has been reported to exhibit antioxidant, gastroprotective, and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the effects of ARA ethanolic extract (ARAE) on microglia-mediated neuroinflammation have not been fully elucidated. In this work, we explored the anti-neuroinflammatory properties and underlying molecular mechanisms of ARAE in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated microglial BV2 cells. Our results showed that ARAE significantly attenuates the production of nitric oxide (NO) and inflammatory cytokines induced by LPS. ARAE treatment also inhibited the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 without causing cytotoxicity. ARAE markedly attenuated the transcriptional activities of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) phosphorylation, and induced heme oxygenase (HO)-1 expression. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed that ARAE contains three main components—atractylenolide I, atractylenolide III, and atractylodin—all compounds that significantly inhibit the production of inflammatory factors. These findings indicate that ARAE may be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of inflammation-related neurodegenerative diseases.

Borrelia burgdorferi basic membrane protein A stimulates murine macrophage to secrete specific chemokines

In this study, we investigated the mechanisms that lead to the production of proinflammatory mediators by the murine macrophage cell line, RAW264.7, when these cells are exposed in vitro to recombinant Borrelia burgdorferi basic membrane protein A (rBmpA). Using antibody protein microarray technology with high-throughput detection ability for detecting 25 chemokines in culture supernatant the RAW264.7 cell culture supernatants at 12 and 24 h post-stimulation with rBmpA, we identified two chemokines, a monocyte chemoattractant protein-5 (MCP-5/CCL12) and a macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2/CXCL2), both of which increased significantly after stimulation. We then chose these two chemokines for further study. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and real-time polymerase chain reaction revealed that with the increase of rBmpA concentration, MCP-5/CCL12 and MIP-2/CXCL2 showed concentration-dependent increases (p <0.01).Our results indicate that the rBmpA could stimulate the secretion of several specific chemokines and induce Lyme arthritis.

Anti-inflammatory effects and mechanism of the total flavonoids from Artemisia scoparia Waldst. et kit. in vitro and in vivo

Artemisia scoparia Waldst. et Kit. is traditionally used for the treatment of jaundice urinary retention, itching wet sores, infectious icteric hepatitis and influenza in Uighur medicine. This study aimed to further illuminate the anti-inflammatory effects and mechanism of the total flavonoids (ASTF) from Artemisia scoparia Waldst. et Kit. In vitro, RAW 264.7 cells were pretreated with ASTF 1 h before stimulation with LPS (1 μg/mL) for 24 h. Then, the concentrations of NO, PGE₂, TNF-α, IL-6 and MCP-1 in the medium were determined. Intracellular oxidative stress was detected using DCFH-DA. Immunofluorescent analysis, western blot and qRT-PCR were carried out to illuminate the mechanism of anti-inflammatory effects of ASTF. In vivo, mice were given an intragastric administration of ASTF 1 h before an intranasal administration of LPS. After 24 h, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was collected to measure the number of total cells, macrophage and neutrophils. The levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in BALF were quantified by ELISA kits. Lung specimens were isolated for histopathological examinations and lung wet-to-dry weight (W/D) ratio. We found that ASTF significantly inhibited the production of NO, PGE₂, TNF-α, IL-6, MCP-1 and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. ASTF can obviously inhibit the degredation of IκBa and inhibit the nucleus translocations of p-NF-κB p65, p-ERK1/2 and p-p38 in RAW 264.7 cells stimulated by LPS. ASTF also markedly decreased the protein and mRNA expression of TNF-α and IL-6 in a dose-dependent manner. When pretreated with ASTF, alveolar hemorrhage and neutrophil infiltration, as well as pulmonary histopathologic changes, were substantially suppressed in lung tissues in the murine acute lung injury model. The lung wet-to-dry weight (W/D) ratio was strongly decreased. These results suggested that ASTF showed important anti-inflammatory activity and might provide protective effects against LPS-induced ALI. The anti-inflammatory effect of ASTF might attribute to its suppression of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathway.

Inhibitory effects of Dianthi Herba ethanolic extract on inflammatory and nociceptive responses in murine macrophages and mouse models of abdominal writhing and ear edema

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dianthi Herba is a traditional herbal medicine used to treat inflammatory-related diseases including acute pyelonephritis, cystitis, laryngopharyngitis, and urethritis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We investigated the effects of Dianthi Herba ethanolic extract (DH) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated inflammatory responses in murine macrophages including RAW 264.7 cell line and mouse peritoneal macrophages as well as nociceptive and edema mouse models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The biological effects of DH on inflammatory cytokine, mediator, and related protein production were assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blotting, and real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (real-time RT-PCR). Additionally, Western blotting was performed to investigate intracellular signaling pathways, and the anti-nociceptive activity of three doses of DH (100, 200, and 300mg/kg) against acetic acid-induced writhing responses and its inhibitory effects on xylene-induced ear edema were researched in mice through oral administration.

RESULTS

DH treatment significantly inhibited nitric oxide (NO) secretion and inflammatory cytokine production in RAW 264.7 cells and mouse peritoneal macrophages and induced heme oxygenase (HO)-1 expression. DH strongly inhibited the transcriptional activity of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) in LPS-stimulated macrophages. Meanwhile, DH exerted anti-nociceptive effects on writhing responses and anti-edema effects in mice.

CONCLUSION

We confirmed the anti-inflammatory activities and inhibitory mechanism of DH in macrophages and clarified its inhibitory effects in vivo. These findings illustrate the therapeutic potential of DH as a natural anti-inflammatory agent.

Maydis Stigma Elicits Analgesia and Blocks Edema in Mice and Inhibits Inflammation in Macrophages

Maydis Stigma (MS) is an herb traditionally used in many parts of the world. Previous studies have reported that MS plays a role in several biological activities, including antidiabetic and anticancer activities. However, the effects of a MS ethanolic extract (MSE) on the anti-inflammatory cellular mechanism remain unclear. Here, we investigated the anti-inflammatory properties of MSE and its molecular mechanism both in vitro and in vivo. The effects of MSE on the production of inflammatory mediators, cytokines, and related proteins and the identification of target genes were determined using LPS-stimulated macrophages. We also determined the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of MSE by examining acetic acid-induced writhing responses and xylene-induced ear edema in mice. Our results indicated that MSE markedly decreased iNOS and COX-2 levels without causing cytotoxicity and suppressed the secretion of NO in LPS-stimulated macrophages. MSE also inhibited the production of proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-[Formula: see text], IL-6, and IL-1[Formula: see text], and induced the expression of HO-1. Moreover, MSE treatment significantly reduced the LPS-stimulated activation of MAPK, NF-[Formula: see text]B, and AP-1. Furthermore, MSE exerted an analgesic effect on the acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing response test and an anti-inflammatory effect on xylene-induced ear edema in ICR mice. Finally, we investigated the components of MSE using UPLC-ESI-MS and found that it contains the maysin as a marker component. Overall, these observations demonstrate that MSE has anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects both in vitro and in vivo, which may provide new scientific evidence for its use as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of inflammation.

Senegenin Ameliorate Acute Lung Injury Through Reduction of Oxidative Stress and Inhibition of Inflammation in Cecal Ligation and Puncture-Induced Sepsis Rats

The purpose of this study was to assess the protective effect of senegenin on acute lung injury (ALI) in rats induced by sepsis. Rat ALI model was reproduced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). All rats were randomly divided into five groups: group 1 (control), group 2 (CLP), group 3 (CLP + senegenin 15 mg/kg), group 4 (CLP + senegenin 30 mg/kg), and group 5 (CLP + senegenin 60 mg/kg). CLP + senegenin groups received senegenin by gavage daily for consecutive 5 days, respectively, while the mice in control and CLP groups were given an equivalent volume of saline. We detected the lung wet/dry weight ratios and the histopathology of the lung. The levels of lung tissue myeloperoxidase (MPO), malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione (GSH) were determined. Meanwhile, the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) levels were studied. The results demonstrated that senegenin treatment significantly attenuated CLP-induced lung injury, including reduction of lung wet/dry weight ratio, protein leak, infiltration of leukocytes, and MPO activity. In addition, senegenin markedly decreased MDA content and increased SOD activity and GSH level. Serum levels of TNF-α and IL-1β were also decreased by senegenin administration. Furthermore, senegenin administration inhibited the nuclear translocation of NF-κB in the lungs. These findings indicate that senegenin exerts protective effects on CLP-induced septic rats. Senegenin may be a potential therapeutic agent against sepsis.

Biomolecular evidence of anti-inflammatory effects by Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root extract in rodent cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root is widely used in Asia as an analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent. This research investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root extract (CRE) using RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and carrageenan- (CA-) induced rat paw edema.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in the culture supernatant, mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS and COX-2, protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in the extract were assayed. In addition, the effect of CRE on acute inflammation in vivo was observed using CA-induced rat hind paw edema assay. The changes on the histopathology and histomorphometry of hind paw skins-dorsum and ventrum pedis were observed using CA-treated rats.

RESULTS

Treatment with CRE (0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/mL) resulted in inhibited levels of protein expression of lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced iNOS, COX-2, NF-κB, and MAPKs (ERK, JNK, and p38) as well as production of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, NO, and PGE2 induced by LPS. Consistent with these results, CRE reduced the LPS-induced expressions of these cytokines, iNOS and COX-2 at the mRNA levels in a dose-dependent manner. In particular, results of the CA-induced rat hind paw edema assay showed an anti-edema effect of CRE. In addition, treatment with CRE resulted in dose-dependent inhibition of CA-induced increases of skin thickness, mast cell degranulation, and infiltrated inflammatory, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, and COX-2-positive cells in both dorsum and ventrum pedis skin, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that CRE exhibits anti-inflammatory activities via decreasing production of pro-inflammatory mediators through suppression of the pathways of NF-κB and MAPKs in LPS-induced macrophage cells. In addition, results of the CA-induced rat hind paw edema assay show an anti-edema effect of CRE. Our findings also support the traditional use of CRE in the inflammatory symptoms of rheumatic arthritis and acute icteric hepatitis. Thus, CRE may have therapeutic potential for a variety of inflammation-mediated diseases and may be developed into potent anti-inflammatory drugs.

U-Bang-Haequi Tang: A Herbal Prescription that Prevents Acute Inflammation through Inhibition of NF-κB-Mediated Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase

Since antiquity, medical herbs have been prescribed for both treatment and preventative purposes. Herbal formulas are used to reduce toxicity as well as increase efficacy in traditional Korean medicine. U-bang-haequi tang (UBT) is a herbal prescription containing Arctii fructus and Forsythia suspensa as its main components and has treated many human diseases in traditional Korean medicine. This research investigated the effects of UBT against an acute phase of inflammation. For this, we measured induction of nitric oxide (NO) and related proteins in macrophage cell line stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Further, paw swelling was measured in carrageenan-treated rats. Carrageenan significantly induced activation of inflammatory cells and increases in paw volume, whereas oral administration of 0.3 or 1 g/kg/day of UBT inhibited the acute inflammatory response. In RAW264.7 cells, UBT inhibited mRNA and protein expression levels of iNOS. UBT treatment also blocked elevation of NO production, nuclear translocation of NF-κB, phosphorylation of Iκ-Bα induced by LPS. Moreover, UBT treatment significantly blocked the phosphorylation of p38 and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinases by LPS. In conclusion, UBT prevented both acute inflammation in rats as well as LPS-induced NO and iNOS gene expression through inhibition of NF-κB in RAW264.7 cells.

Protective effect of senegenin on splenectomy-induced postoperative cognitive dysfunction in elderly rats

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is common in elderly patients. Senegenin, an active component of extracts from Polygala tenuifolia root, a traditional Chinese medicine, has neuroprotective and neuroregenerative effects. However, the mechanism underlying the effects of senegenin against postoperative cognitive impairment in elderly individuals has yet to be elucidated. The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effects of senegenin on the cognitive functions of elderly rats with splenectomy-induced POCD. Results from a Morris water maze test suggested that splenectomy induced a transient cognitive deficiency in the elderly rats; however, when the rats were treated with senegenin, the cognitive impairment was notably attenuated. Further experiments showed that senegenin significantly inhibited the mRNA and protein expression of several key pro-inflammatory cytokines, specifically, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6 and IL-8, in the hippocampal tissues of elderly rats following splenectomy. In order to investigate the molecular mechanism involved, the expression and activity of the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling pathway was assessed. On day 1 postoperatively, it was observed that senegenin markedly suppressed the mRNA and protein expression of TLR4, myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) and TIR domain-containing adaptor-inducing interferon-β (TRIF). Furthermore, the phosphorylation levels of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 and inhibitor of NF-κB (IκBα) were also decreased following senegenin treatment on the first day subsequent to surgery. These results suggest that senegenin suppressed splenectomy-induced transient cognitive impairment in elderly rats, possibly by downregulating two signaling pathways involved in inflammation, TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB and TLR4/TRIF/NF-κB, to further inhibit the expression of key pro-inflammatory cytokines, specifically, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8, and ultimately the neuroinflammation in the hippocampal tissues. In conclusion, the present study revealed that senegenin exhibited neuroprotective effects against splenectomy-induced transient cognitive impairment in elderly rats, which indicated that senegenin may be a promising agent for the treatment of POCD.

Xiaotan Tongfu granules contribute to the prevention of stress ulcers

AIM: To investigate the efficacy and potential mechanism of Xiaotan Tongfu granules (XTTF) in stress ulcers.

METHODS: One hundred sixty rats were randomly divided into 4 groups (n = 10) as follows: the model group (MP group), the control group (CP group), the ranitidine group (RP group) and the XTTF granule group (XP group). Rats in the MP group received no drugs, rats in the CP group received 0.2 mL of a 0.9% sodium chloride solution via oral gavage, and rats in the RP and XP groups received the same volume of ranitidine (50 mg/kg) or XTTF granule (4.9 g/kg). The cold-restraint stress model was applied to induce stress ulcers after 7 consecutive days of drug administration. Afterwards, rats were sacrificed at 0, 3, 6 and 24 h. Gastric pH was measured by a precise pH meter; gastric emptying rate (GER) was measured by using a methylcellulose test meal; myeloperoxidase activity (MPO), macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), and heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) were measured by immunohistochemical staining; and mucosal cell apoptosis was measured by transferase dUTP nick end labeling.

RESULTS: In the cold-restraint stress model, the development of stress ulcers peaked at 3 h and basically regressed after 24 h. Gastric lesions were significantly different in the RP and XP groups at each time point. Interestingly, although this index was much lower in the RP group than in the XP group immediately following stress induction (7.00 ± 1.10 vs 10.00 ± 1.79, P < 0.05. Concerning gastric pH, between the RP and XP groups, we detected a statistically significant difference immediately after stress induction (0 h: 4.56 ± 0.47 vs 3.34 ± 0.28, P < 0.05) but not at any of the subsequent time points. For GER, compared to the RP group, GER was remarkably elevated in the XP group because a statistically significant difference was detected (3 h: 46.84 ± 2.70 vs 61.16 ± 5.12, P < 0.05; 6 h: 60.96 ± 6.71 vs 73.41 ± 6.16, P < 0.05; 24 h: 77.47 ± 3.17 vs 91.31 ± 4.34, P < 0.05). With respect to MPO and MIF, comparisons between the RP and XP groups revealed statistically significant differences at 3 h (MPO: 18.94 ± 1.20 vs 13.51 ± 0.89, P < 0.05; MIF: 150.67 ± 9.85 vs 122.17 ± 5.67, P < 0.05) and 6 h (MPO: 13.22 ± 1.54 vs 8.83 ± 0.65, P < 0.05; MIF: 135.50 ± 9.46 vs 109.83 ± 6.40, P < 0.05). With regard to HSP70, HSP70 expression was significantly increased in the RP and XP groups at 3 and 6 h compared to the MP and CP groups. In addition, comparing the RP and XP groups also showed statistically significant differences at 3 and 6 h. The expression of PCNA was higher in the RP and XP groups 3 h after stress induction. Between these two groups, small but statistically significant differences were observed at all of the time points (3 h: 69.50 ± 21.52 vs 79.33 ± 15.68, P < 0.05; 6 h: 107.83 ± 4.40 vs 121.33 ± 5.71, P < 0.05; 24 h: 125.33 ± 5.65 vs 128.50 ± 14.49, P < 0.05) except 0 h. With regard to apoptosis, the apoptotic activity in the RP and XP groups was significantly different from that in the MP and CP groups. The XP group exhibited a higher inhibition of cell apoptosis than the RP group at 3 h (232.58 ± 24.51 vs 174.46 ± 10.35, P < 0.05) and 6 h (164.74 ± 18.31 vs 117.71 ± 12.08, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION: The Xiaotan Tongfu granule was demonstrated to be similar to ranitidine in preventing stress ulcers. It exhibited multiple underlying mechanisms and deserves further study.

Saikosaponin A mediates the inflammatory response by inhibiting the MAPK and NF-κB pathways in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells

Saikosaponin A (SSA) is a major triterpenoid saponin isolated from Radix bupleuri (RB), a widely used Chinese traditional medicine to treat various inflammation-related diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory activity, as well as the molecular mechanism of SSA in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. In this study, we demonstrated that SSA markedly inhibits the expression of certain immune-related cytotoxic factors, including cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS), as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6. It also significantly upregulates the expression of IL-10, an important anti-inflammatory cytokine, suggesting its anti-inflammatory activity in LPS-stimulated macrophages. We further demonstrated that SSA inhibits the activation of the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway by suppressing the phosphorylation of inhibitory NF-κB inhibitor α (IκBα) and thus holding p65 NF-κB in the cytoplasm to prevent its translocation to the nucleus. In addition, SSA also inhibits the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway by downregulating the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (c-JNK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), the three key components of the MAPK family. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that SSA has an anti-inflammatory effect by regulating inflammatory mediators and suppressing the MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells.