Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 and Type 2 Infection Increases Atherosclerosis Risk: Evidence Based on a Meta-Analysis

The Detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori and Cytomegalovirus in Non-Atherosclerotic Arteries of Patients with Coronary Artery Disease

Atherosclerotic coronary artery disease (ACAD) is a major cause of global morbidity and mortality, characterized as an inflammatory process due to damage to blood vessel walls by risk factors like aging, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, smoking, and diabetes. Infectious agents, including Chlamydia pneumoniae (Cpn), Cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Helicobacter pylori (HP), have been implicated in ACAD's pathophysiology. A study with 56 subjects undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) aimed to detect Cpn, CMV, and HP DNA in unaffected artery segments and explore associations with disease progression and inflammation markers. The study found infectious agents' DNA in 21.4% of samples, HP in eight samples, and CMV and Cpn in four samples each. Significant correlations were observed between HP and overweight or obese subjects, as well as between the presence of infectious agents and inflammation marker values. An association between HP and renal function was also noted. The findings reaffirm previous discoveries of infectious agents in non-clinically affected arteries used as CABG grafts. Correlations identified between the presence of HP, CMV, and Cpn DNA in grafts and several biomarkers of inflammation and obesity emphasize the potential role of these infectious agents in ACAD pathogenesis.

Virus-Associated CD8+ T-Cells Are Not Activated Through Antigen-Mediated Interaction Inside Atherosclerotic Lesions

INTRODUCTION

Viral infections have been associated with the progression of atherosclerosis and CD8+ T-cells directed against common viruses, such as influenza, Epstein-Barr virus, and cytomegalovirus, have been detected inside human atherosclerotic lesions. These virus-specific CD8+ T-cells have been hypothesized to contribute to the development of atherosclerosis; however, whether they affect disease progression directly remains unclear. In this study, we aimed to characterize the activation status of virus-specific CD8+ T-cells in the atherosclerotic lesion.

METHODS

The presence, clonality, tissue enrichment, and phenotype of virus-associated CD8+ T-cells in atherosclerotic lesions were assessed by exploiting bulk T-cell receptor-β sequencing and single-cell T-cell receptor (α and β) sequencing datasets on human endarterectomy samples and patient-matched blood samples. To investigate if virus-specific CD8+ T-cells can be activated through T-cell receptor stimulation in the atherosclerotic lesion, the immunopeptidome of human plaques was determined.

RESULTS

Virus-associated CD8+ T-cells accumulated more in the atherosclerotic lesion (mean=2.0%), compared with patient-matched blood samples (mean=1.4%; P=0.05), and were more clonally expanded and tissue enriched in the atherosclerotic lesion in comparison with nonassociated CD8+ T-cells from the lesion. Single-cell T-cell receptor sequencing and flow cytometry revealed that these virus-associated CD8+ T-cells were phenotypically highly similar to other CD8+ T-cells in the lesion and that both exhibited a more activated phenotype compared with circulating T-cells. Interestingly, virus-associated CD8+ T-cells are unlikely to be activated through antigen-specific interactions in the atherosclerotic lesion, as no virus-derived peptides were detected on HLA-I in the lesion.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that virus-specific CD8+ T-cells are tissue enriched in atherosclerotic lesions; however, their potential contribution to inflammation may involve antigen-independent mechanisms.

Association of Circular RNAs levels in blood and Essential Hypertension with Carotid Plaque

BACKGROUND

As one of the essential hypertension (EH)-mediated target organ damage, carotid plaque is a crucial subclinical precursor for cardiovascular events. Therefore, it is vital to identify the risk factors and pathogenesis for EH with carotid plaque.

METHODS

Based on our previous microarray analysis, we selected four circRNAs as the candidate circRNAs and detected their expression levels in blood of 192 subjects (64 healthy controls, 64 EH patients, and 64 EH patients with carotid plaque) by qRT-PCR analysis. The regulatory mechanism of circRNAs involved in carotid plaque was predicted by bioinformatics analysis.

RESULTS

The level of hsa_circ_0124782 increased significantly and the levels of hsa_circ_0131618 and hsa_circ_0127342 decreased significantly in the EH group and EH with carotid plaque group compared with the control group (P < .05). Functional enrichment analysis showed that three circRNAs might be implicated in pathogenesis for carotid plaque.

CONCLUSION

Our study revealed the relationship between three circRNAs and carotid plaque, suggesting that they may serve as potential biomarkers for EH with carotid plaque.

Transcriptome-wide N6-methyladenosine methylation profile of atherosclerosis in mice

BACKGROUND

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a critical pathological event during the progression of cardiovascular diseases. It exhibits fibrofatty lesions on the arterial wall and lacks effective treatment. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most common modification of eukaryotic RNA and plays an important role in regulating the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases. However, the role of m6A modification in AS remains largely unknown. Therefore, in this study, we explored the transcriptome distribution of m6A modification in AS and its potential mechanism.

METHODS

Methylation Quantification Kit was used to detect the global m6A levels in the aorta of AS mice. Western blot was used to analyze the protein level of methyltransferases. Methylated RNA immunoprecipitation with next-generation sequencing (MeRIP-seq) and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) were used to obtain the first transcriptome range analysis of the m6A methylene map in the aorta of AS mice, followed by bioinformatics analysis. qRT-PCR and MeRIP-qRT-PCR were used to measure the mRNA and m6A levels in target genes.

RESULTS

The global m6A and protein levels of methyltransferase METTL3 were significantly increased in the aorta of AS mice. However, the protein level of demethylase ALKBH5 was significantly decreased. Through MeRIP-seq, we obtained m6A methylation maps in AS and control mice. In total, 26,918 m6A peaks associated with 13,744 genes were detected in AS group, whereas 26,157 m6A peaks associated with 13,283 genes were detected in the control group. Peaks mainly appeared in the coding sequence (CDS) regions close to the stop codon with the RRACH motif. Moreover, functional enrichment analysis demonstrated that m6A-containing genes were significantly enriched in AS-relevant pathways. Interestingly, a negative correlation between m6A methylation abundance and gene expression level was found through the integrated analysis of MeRIP-seq and RNA-seq data. Among the m6A-modified genes, a hypo-methylated but up-regulated (hypo-up) gene Fabp5 may be a potential biomarker of AS.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides transcriptome-wide m6A methylation for the first time to determine the association between m6A modification and AS progression. Our study lays a foundation for further exploring the pathogenesis of AS and provides a new direction for the treatment of AS.

A Comparative Study of Seroprevalence of 17 Common Pathogens Among Airline Pilots and Office Workers

Background The variation in infection risk among individuals is thought to be partially influenced by occupational factors. This study aims to investigate the seropositivity rates of 17 common infectious agents in male airline pilots (APs), a professional group known to experience a high prevalence of cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases. Methodology In our study, we employed a case-control design with 100 male APs as cases, matched by age, sex, and tenure (i.e., at least five years of service) to 100 male office workers (OWs) who served as controls. We measured the IgG antibody levels to 17 pathogens using specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, including herpes simplex virus 1, herpes simplex virus 2, varicella-zoster virus, Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, human herpesvirus 6, human herpesvirus 7, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, Toxoplasma gondii, human T-lymphotropic virus 1, BK virus, John Cunningham virus, Merkel cell polyomavirus, human papillomavirus 16, human papillomavirus 18, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Helicobacter pylori. The determination of seropositivity cutoffs for each pathogen was made in accordance with the guidelines provided by the respective kit manufacturers. Results The seropositivity rates for the 17 pathogens ranged from 1% for human T-lymphotropic virus 1 to 94% for varicella-zoster virus and were similar in both professions, except for herpes simplex virus 1 and Helicobacter pylori, which were more prevalent in APs. Conclusions Our findings suggest a higher prevalence of previous infections with herpes simplex virus 1 and Helicobacter pylori in APs compared to OWs. These infections may be associated with the prevalence of specific non-communicable diseases in this professional group. However, additional longitudinal studies are needed to substantiate this hypothesis.

Metabolic profiles in plasma of patients with herpes labialis based on GC-MS

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to compare the plasma metabolic profiles of patients with herpes labialis with healthy controls and identify the biomarkers of herpes labialis.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

We collected 18 patients with herpes labialis and 20 healthy individuals. Plasma samples from both groups were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

RESULTS

According to the principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), we found that metabolic profiles had changed in patients with herpes labialis compared to the controls. By further selecting the different metabolites according to the variable importance in the projection (VIP) and p valve of t-tests, we found that acetic acid, pyroglutamic acid, alanine, ethanedioic acid, cyclohexaneacetic acid, pyruvic acid, d-mannose, phosphoric acid, l-amphetamine, and citric acid were decreased in patients with herpes labialis, while sedoheptulose and ethylamine were increased. Pathway analysis showed that herpes labialis may affect the amino acid and energy metabolism.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings may contribute to elucidating the metabolic basis of herpes labialis and provide a new perspective for further research on the "Shang-Huo" state in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).

Prospects for the use of statins in antiviral therapy

Inhibitors of hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase, in addition to suppressing cholesterol synthesis, have an antiviral effect. Clinical studies have shown antiviral efficacy of statins against COVID-19, HCV, HBV, RSV, HIV, influenza viruses. The ability of statins to inhibit influenza viruses, COVID-19, RSV, HIV, as well as Ebola, Zika, Dengue, Coxsackie, rotaviruses, ADV, HDV, HHV was experimentally confirmed. Statins can also enhance the effects of antiviral drugs, making them more effective in treating infections. Therefore, the use of statins in the complex therapy of viral infections is promising. In addition, the role of influenza viruses, T-cell leukemia and herpesviruses, HIV, HBV, HCV, HPV in the development of atherosclerosis has been identified, so the use of statins in complex treatment is also necessary to correct endothelial dysfunction that occurs under the influence of viruses. Since the activity of retroelements that are evolutionarily related to exogenous viruses increases with aging, it has been suggested that retrotransposons can also be targets for statins. This is evidenced by a change in the expression of non-coding RNAs under the action of statins, since the key sources of non-coding RNAs are retroelements. This property may be an additional factor in the prescription of statins to increase life expectancy, in addition to the prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis, since pathological activation of retroelements are the causes of aging. Viruses, like retroelements, are involved in the pathogenesis of malignant neoplasms, in the treatment of which statins have shown their effectiveness and the ability to enhance the effect of anticancer drugs, overcoming chemoresistance (similar to the potentiation of antiviral drugs). One of the mechanisms of this activity of statins may be their effect on retroelements and viruses.

Atherosclerosis by Virus Infection—A Short Review

Atherosclerosis manifests by the thickening of artery walls and their narrowed channels through the accumulation of plaque. It is one of the most important indicators of cardiovascular disease. It can be caused by various factors, such as smoking, a high cholesterol diet, hypertension, hyperglycemia, and genetic factors. However, atherosclerosis can also develop due to infection. It has been reported that some bacteria and viruses can cause the development of atherosclerosis. Examples of these viruses are influenza viruses, herpes viruses, hepatitis viruses, or papillomaviruses, which are all prevalent and eminent globally for infecting the population worldwide. Moreover, many patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) showed symptoms of cardiovascular disease. In this review paper, the viruses linked to the development of atherosclerosis are introduced, and their viral characteristics, the mechanisms of the development of atherosclerosis, and the current vaccines and antiviral treatment methods are summarized.

Antibodies to Human Herpesviruses and Rate of Incident Cardiovascular Events and All-Cause Mortality in the UK Biobank Infectious Disease Pilot Study

Background

Associations between human herpesviruses (HHVs) and cardiovascular disease/mortality have been reported, but evidence is inconsistent. We investigated associations between 3 common herpesviruses and (1) incident stroke or myocardial infarction (MI) and (2) all-cause mortality.

Methods

We included participants from the UK Biobank Infectious Disease pilot study with valid serum antibody (IgG) measurements taken at cohort entry (2006-2010) for herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1), varicella zoster virus (VZV), and cytomegalovirus (CMV). Linked hospital and mortality records up to December 30 2019 provided information on rates of (1) incident first stroke or MI and (2) all-cause mortality. Hazard ratios (HRs) from Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to assess relationships between (1) HHV seropositivity, (2) HHV titer and incident stroke/MI, and death outcomes. Fully adjusted models accounted for sociodemographic information (age, sex, ethnicity, education, deprivation quintile, birthplace, population density), baseline comorbidities (including diabetes and hypertension), smoking status, body mass index, and serum cholesterol.

Results

Of 9429 study participants (56% female, 95% White, median age 58 years), 41% were seropositive for all 3 HHVs. Human herpesvirus seropositivity was not associated with stroke/MI (fully adjusted HRs and 95% confidence intervals [CIs]: HSV1 = 0.93 [CI, 0.72-1.22], VZV = 0.78 [CI, 0.51-1.20], CMV = 0.91 [CI, 0.71-1.16]) or all-cause mortality (HSV1 = 1.21 [CI, 1.00-1.47], VZV = 0.79 [CI, 0.58-1.07], CMV = 0.90 [CI, 0.76-1.06]). Human herpesvirus titers were not associated with outcomes.

Conclusions

In this mostly White UK Biobank subset, neither HHV seropositivity nor titers were associated with stroke/MI or all-cause mortality.

Lipid-related protein NECTIN2 is an important marker in the progression of carotid atherosclerosis: An intersection of clinical and basic studies

Background:

The nectin cell adhesion molecule 2 (NECTIN2) protein is a cell adhesion molecule involved in lipid metabolism. We aimed to explore the potential role of NECTIN2 in carotid atherosclerosis (CA).

Materials and Methods:

Patients who underwent carotid endarterectomy (CEA) at the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University were enrolled in this study. APOE-/- rats fed western or normal diet were used to model early pathological changes in CA. The relationship between patients’ lipid indices and plaque severity was assessed using ordinal regression analysis. Mendelian randomisation (MR) analysis was used to determine the causal links between low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and atherosclerosis. After matching analysis of the single-cell transcriptome and microarray data of carotid plaques, NECTIN2 was identified as a key factor affecting CA. The importance of NECTIN2 was further verified by immunofluorescence staining of CEA and APOE-/- rat specimens.

Results:

A total of 108 patients were included. The traditional lipid indices did not correlate significantly with the plaque severity (P > 0.05). NECTIN2 provided a strong causal link between LDL-C level and CA (MR effect size >0). Deep-sequencing data illustrated that NECTIN2 expression was cell specific. In early-stage CA, NECTIN2 expression was increased in endothelial cells; however, in advanced-stage CA, NECTIN2 was overexpressed in macrophages located in fibrous caps. APOE-/- rat carotid artery and human carotid plaques modelled the entire atherosclerotic process, showing an upregulation of NECTIN2 expression in CA.

Conclusions:

Lipid-related protein NECTIN2 is a potential marker in CA progression and can potentially be a new therapeutic target for clinical prevention.

Infections as Novel Risk Factors of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Diseases: Pathophysiological Links and Therapeutic Implications

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (ASCVD) are the major cause of mortality worldwide. Despite the continuous progress in ASCVD therapy, the residual risk persists beyond the management of traditional risk factors. Several infections including Helicobacter pylori infection, periodontal disease, and viral infections are associated with the increased risk of ASCVD, both directly by damage to the heart muscle and vasculature, and indirectly by triggering a systemic proinflammatory state. Hence, beyond the optimal management of the traditional ASCVD risk factors, infections should be considered as an important non-classical risk factor to enable early diagnosis and appropriate treatment. Here, we summarized the currently available evidence regarding the role of inflammation in ASCVD and the association between the particular infections and pathogens (Helicobacter pylori, periodontal disease, pneumonia, Cytomegalovirus, Human immunodeficiency virus, Herpes simplex virus, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) on the development and progression of ASCVD. We also speculated about the potential therapeutic implications of the anti-inflammatory and anti-infective drugs on ASCVD outcomes, including drugs routinely administered in patients with ASCVD (statins, P2Y12 receptor inhibitors, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors/angiotensin receptor blockers) and novel strategies aiming at residual risk reduction (colchicine, anti-cytokine drugs, and methotrexate). Considering the emerging association between infections and ASCVD, it is crucial to determine the possible advantages of infection prevention and treatment in patients with ASCVD.

Association of recurrent common infections and subclinical cardiovascular disease in Mexican women

BACKGROUND

Acute and agent-specific chronic infections have been associated with increased cardiovascular risk, however data on the burden of common recurrent infections on cardiovascular disease is limited. We hypothesized women with greater exposure to uncomplicated common infectious events had an increased risk of subclinical cardiovascular disease (sCVD).

METHODS

In a cross-sectional study, we assessed the relation of recurrent infections and carotid artery intima-media thickness (IMT) in 1946 disease-free women from the Mexican Teachers' Cohort. Through 2012-2016, participants answered structured questions on respiratory, urinary and vaginal infections during the previous year and their IMT was measured using ultrasound by standardized neurologists. We defined sCVD as mean right and left IMT ≥0.8 mm or the presence of atheromatous plaque. Multivariable linear and logistic regression analyses were used to evaluate the association of infectious events with IMT and sCVD adjusting for age, sociodemographic, and cardiovascular risk factors.

RESULTS

Among participants (50±5 years) 13% reported no infections, 20% one infection and 67% three or more episodes. Overall prevalence of sCVD was 12%(n = 240). Adjusted models for logistic regression showed that women with 2 or more infections had 91% higher odds of sCVD (OR 1.91; 95%CI 1.16, 3.13) compared to women without infections (p-trend:0.015). Sub-analyses by type of infection resulted not significant. Linear regression analysis did not show a significant association between mean IMT and recurrent infections.

CONCLUSIONS

Recurrent infectious events in young adult women are associated with greater sCVD, which supports the hypothesis of low-grade chronic inflammation in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease.

Vigilance on New-Onset Atherosclerosis Following SARS-CoV-2 Infection

The pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by SARS-CoV-2, has become a global challenge to public health. While its typical clinical manifestations are respiratory disorders, emerging evidence of cardiovascular complications indicates the adverse interaction between SARS-CoV-2 infection and cardiovascular outcomes. Given that viral infection has emerged as an additional risk factor for atherosclerosis, in this paper, we attempt to clarify the susceptibility to new-onset atherosclerosis in individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2. Mechanistically, serving as functional receptors for SARS-CoV-2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) mediates SARS-CoV-2 infection of endothelial cells (ECs) directly, leading to endothelial dysfunction and dysregulation of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). In addition, high expression of CD147, an alternative receptor, and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome may also contribute to atherosclerosis in the context of COVID-19. More importantly, SARS-CoV-2 attacks the immune system, which results in excessive inflammation and perpetuates a vicious cycle of deteriorated endothelial dysfunction that further promotes inflammation. The alterations in the blood lipid profile induced by COVID-19 should not be ignored in assessing the predisposition toward atherosclerosis in victims of COVID-19. A better understanding of the underlying mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 infection and the long-term monitoring of inflammatory factors and endothelial function should be considered in the follow-up of patients who have recovered from COVID-19 for early detection and prevention of atherosclerosis.

The Tat Protein of HIV-1 Prevents the Loss of HSV-Specific Memory Adaptive Responses and Favors the Control of Viral Reactivation

The development of therapeutic strategies to control the reactivation of the Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) is an unaddressed priority. In this study, we evaluated whether Tat, a HIV-1 protein displaying adjuvant functions, could improve previously established HSV-specific memory responses and prevent viral reactivation. To this aim, mice were infected with non-lethal doses of HSV-1 and, 44 days later, injected or not with Tat. Mice were then monitored to check their health status and measure memory HSV-specific cellular and humoral responses. The appearance of symptoms associated with HSV-reactivation was observed at significantly higher frequencies in the control group than in the Tat-treated mice. In addition, the control animals experienced a time-dependent decrease in HSV-specific Immunoglobulin G (IgG), while the Tat-treated mice maintained antibody titers over time. IgG levels were directly correlated with the number of HSV-specific CD8⁺ T cells, suggesting an effect of Tat on both arms of the adaptive immunity. Consistent with the maintenance of HSV-specific immune memory, Tat-treated mice showed a better control of HSV-1 re-infection. Although further studies are necessary to assess whether similar effects are observed in other models, these results indicate that Tat exerts a therapeutic effect against latent HSV-1 infection and re-infection by favoring the maintenance of adaptive immunity.

[Detection of Antigens of Cardiotropic Viruses in Atherosclerotic Plaques in Patients with Fatal Myocardial Infarction]

AIM

To assess the frequency of detection of cardiotropic virus antigens in coronary artery atherosclerotic plaques in patients with fatal myocardial infarction (MI).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We examined fragments of coronary plaques of 12 patients with fatal type 1 MI. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) of plaques was performed with the paraffin blocks using antibodies to Herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1, HSV-2, HSV-6, cytomegalovirus (CMV), parvovirus B19, adenovirus, Epstein-Barr virus and enteroviruses.

RESULTS

According to the IHC all patients had virus antigens. The most common virus agents in fragments of coronary plaques were HSV-6 (10 patients) and enteroviruses (5 patients). Antigens of CMV, parvovirus B19, adenovirus, Epstein-Barr virus were not detected in any case.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study viral antigens in coronary artery atherosclerotic plaques were found in all victims of fatal MI. There was no difference in the frequency of detection and type of viral agents between plaques in culprit arteries and uncomplicated atherosclerotic plaques.

Hydroxycholesterol binds and enhances the anti-viral activities of zebrafish monomeric c-reactive protein isoforms

C-reactive proteins (CRPs) are among the faster acute-phase inflammation-responses proteins encoded by one gene (hcrp) in humans and seven genes (crp1-7) in zebrafish (Danio rerio) with importance in bacterial and viral infections. In this study, we described novel preferential bindings of 25-hydroxycholesterol (25HOCh) to CRP1-7 compared with other lipids and explored the antiviral effects of both 25HOCh and CRP1-7 against spring viremia carp virus (SVCV) infection in zebrafish. Both in silico and in vitro results confirmed the antiviral effect of 25HOCh and CRP1-7 interactions, thereby showing that the crosstalk between them differed among the zebrafish isoforms. The presence of oxidized cholesterols in human atherosclerotic plaques amplifies the importance that similar interactions may occur for vascular and/or neurodegenerative diseases during viral infections. In this context, the zebrafish model offers a genetic tool to further investigate these interactions.

Infectious Agents in Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Diseases through Oxidative Stress

Accumulating evidence demonstrates that vascular oxidative stress is a critical feature of atherosclerotic process, potentially triggered by several infectious agents that are considered as risk co-factors for the atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). C. pneumoniae has been shown to upregulate multiple enzymatic systems capable of producing reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as NADPH oxidase (NOX) and cyclooxygenase in vascular endothelial cells, NOX and cytochrome c oxidase in macrophages as well as nitric oxide synthase and lipoxygenase in platelets contributing to both early and late stages of atherosclerosis. P. gingivalis seems to be markedly involved in the atherosclerotic process as compared to A. actinomycetemcomitans contributing to LDL oxidation and foam cell formation. Particularly interesting is the evidence describing the NLRP3 inflammasome activation as a new molecular mechanism underlying P. gingivalis-induced oxidative stress and inflammation. Amongst viral agents, immunodeficiency virus-1 and hepatitis C virus seem to have a major role in promoting ROS production, contributing, hence, to the early stages of atherosclerosis including endothelial dysfunction and LDL oxidation. In conclusion, oxidative mechanisms activated by several infectious agents during the atherosclerotic process underlying CVDs are very complex and not well-known, remaining, thus, an attractive target for future research.

Herpes virus seroepidemiology in the adult Swedish population

Background

Herpes viruses establish a life-long latency and can cause symptoms during both first-time infection and later reactivation. The aim of the present study was to describe the seroepidemiology of Herpes simplex type 1 (HSV1), Herpes simplex type 2 (HSV2), Cytomegalovirus (CMV), Varicella Zoster virus (VZV) and Human herpes virus type 6 (HHV6) in an adult Swedish population (35–95 years of age).

Methods

Presence of antibodies against the respective viruses in serum from individuals in the Betula study was determined with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Singular samples from 535 persons (53.9% women, mean age at inclusion 62.7 ± 14.4 years) collected 2003-2005 were analyzed for the five HHVs mentioned above. In addition, samples including follow-up samples collected 1988–2010 from 3,444 persons were analyzed for HSV.

Results

Prevalence of HSV1 was 79.4%, HSV2 12.9%, CMV 83.2%, VZV 97.9%, and HHV6 97.5%. Herpes virus infections were more common among women (p = 0.010) and a lower age-adjusted HSV seroprevalence was found in later birth cohorts (p < 0.001). The yearly incidence of HSV infection was estimated at 14.0/1000.

Conclusion

Women are more often seropositive for HHV, especially HSV2. Age-adjusted seroprevalence for HSV was lower in later birth cohorts indicating a decreasing childhood and adolescent risk of infection.