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Guo J, Tang X, Deng P, Hui H, Chen B, An J, Zhang G, Shi K, Wang J, He Y, Hao D, Yang H. Interleukin-4 from curcumin-activated OECs emerges as a central modulator for increasing M2 polarization of microglia/macrophage in OEC anti-inflammatory activity for functional repair of spinal cord injury. Cell Commun Signal 2024; 22:162. [PMID: 38448976 PMCID: PMC10916222 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-024-01539-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Microglia/macrophages are major contributors to neuroinflammation in the central nervous system (CNS) injury and exhibit either pro- or anti-inflammatory phenotypes in response to specific microenvironmental signals. Our latest in vivo and in vitro studies demonstrated that curcumin-treated olfactory ensheathing cells (aOECs) can effectively enhance neural survival and axonal outgrowth, and transplantation of aOECs improves the neurological outcome after spinal cord injury (SCI). The therapeutic effect is largely attributed to aOEC anti-inflammatory activity through the modulation of microglial polarization from the M1 to M2 phenotype. However, very little is known about what viable molecules from aOECs are actively responsible for the switch of M1 to M2 microglial phenotypes and the underlying mechanisms of microglial polarization. Herein, we show that Interleukin-4 (IL-4) plays a leading role in triggering the M1 to M2 microglial phenotype, appreciably decreasing the levels of M1 markers IL‑1β, IL‑6, tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and elevating the levels of M2 markers Arg-1, TGF-β, IL-10, and CD206. Strikingly, blockade of IL-4 signaling by siRNA and a neutralizing antibody in aOEC medium reverses the transition of M1 to M2, and the activated microglia stimulated with the aOEC medium lacking IL-4 significantly decreases neuronal survival and neurite outgrowth. In addition, transplantation of aOECs improved the neurological function deficits after SCI in rats. More importantly, the crosstalk between JAK1/STAT1/3/6-targeted downstream signals and NF-κB/SOCS1/3 signaling predominantly orchestrates IL-4-modulated microglial polarization event. These results provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms of aOECs driving the M1-to-M2 shift of microglia and shed light on new therapies for SCI through the modulation of microglial polarization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianbin Guo
- Department of Joint Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Xiangwen Tang
- Basic Medical School Academy, Basic Medical School Academy, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, 712046, China
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Peng Deng
- Basic Medical School Academy, Basic Medical School Academy, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, 712046, China
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Hao Hui
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Bo Chen
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Jing An
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Gaorong Zhang
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Kuohao Shi
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Jinchao Wang
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Yuqing He
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, Ningxia, China
| | - Dingjun Hao
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China.
| | - Hao Yang
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China.
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2
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Liu J, Qi L, Bao S, Yan F, Chen J, Yu S, Dong C. The acute spinal cord injury microenvironment and its impact on the homing of mesenchymal stem cells. Exp Neurol 2024; 373:114682. [PMID: 38199509 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2024.114682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a highly debilitating condition that inflicts devastating harm on the lives of affected individuals, underscoring the urgent need for effective treatments. By activating inflammatory cells and releasing inflammatory factors, the secondary injury response creates an inflammatory microenvironment that ultimately determines whether neurons will undergo necrosis or regeneration. In recent years, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have garnered increasing attention for their therapeutic potential in SCI. MSCs not only possess multipotent differentiation capabilities but also have homing abilities, making them valuable as carriers and mediators of therapeutic agents. The inflammatory microenvironment induced by SCI recruits MSCs to the site of injury through the release of various cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, and enzymes. However, this mechanism has not been previously reported. Thus, a comprehensive exploration of the molecular mechanisms and cellular behaviors underlying the interplay between the inflammatory microenvironment and MSC homing is crucial. Such insights have the potential to provide a better understanding of how to harness the therapeutic potential of MSCs in treating inflammatory diseases and facilitating injury repair. This review aims to delve into the formation of the inflammatory microenvironment and how it influences the homing of MSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyi Liu
- Department of Anatomy, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Longju Qi
- Affiliated Nantong Hospital 3 of Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Shengzhe Bao
- Department of Anatomy, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Fangsu Yan
- Department of Anatomy, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Jiaxi Chen
- Department of Anatomy, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Shumin Yu
- Department of Anatomy, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Chuanming Dong
- Department of Anatomy, Medical College of Nantong University, Nantong, China; Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu Province, China.
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3
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Grijalva-Otero I, Doncel-Pérez E. Traumatic Human Spinal Cord Injury: Are Single Treatments Enough to Solve the Problem? Arch Med Res 2024; 55:102935. [PMID: 38157747 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2023.102935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) results in partial or complete motor deficits, such as paraplegia, tetraplegia, and sphincter control, as well as sensory disturbances and autonomic dysregulation such as arterial hypotension, lack of sweating, and alterations in skin lability. All this has a strong psychological impact on the affected person and his/her family, as well as costs to healthcare institutions with an economic burden in the short, medium, and long terms. Despite at least forty years of experimental animal studies and several clinical trials with different therapeutic strategies, effective therapy is not universally accepted. Most of the published works on acute and chronic injury use a single treatment, such as medication, trophic factor, transplant of a cell type, and so on, to block some secondary injury mechanisms or promote some mechanisms of structural/functional restoration. However, despite significant results in experimental models, the outcome is a moderate improvement in muscle strength, sensation, or eventually in sphincter control, which has been considered non-significant in human clinical trials. Here we present a brief compilation of successful individual treatments that have been applied to secondary mechanisms of action. These studies show limited neuroprotective or neurorestorative approaches in animal models and clinical trials. Thus, the few benefits achieved so far represent a rationale to further explore other strategies that seek better structural and functional restoration of the injured spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Israel Grijalva-Otero
- Medical Research Unit for Neurological Diseases, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad, Hospital de Especialidades, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Ernesto Doncel-Pérez
- Neural Regeneration Group, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos de Toledo, Servicios de Salud de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
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4
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Larrea A, Elexpe A, Díez-Martín E, Torrecilla M, Astigarraga E, Barreda-Gómez G. Neuroinflammation in the Evolution of Motor Function in Stroke and Trauma Patients: Treatment and Potential Biomarkers. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2023; 45:8552-8585. [PMID: 37998716 PMCID: PMC10670324 DOI: 10.3390/cimb45110539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation has a significant impact on different pathologies, such as stroke or spinal cord injury, intervening in their pathophysiology: expansion, progression, and resolution. Neuroinflammation involves oxidative stress, damage, and cell death, playing an important role in neuroplasticity and motor dysfunction by affecting the neuronal connection responsible for motor control. The diagnosis of this pathology is performed using neuroimaging techniques and molecular diagnostics based on identifying and measuring signaling molecules or specific markers. In parallel, new therapeutic targets are being investigated via the use of bionanomaterials and electrostimulation to modulate the neuroinflammatory response. These novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies have the potential to facilitate the development of anticipatory patterns and deliver the most beneficial treatment to improve patients' quality of life and directly impact their motor skills. However, important challenges remain to be solved. Hence, the goal of this study was to review the implication of neuroinflammation in the evolution of motor function in stroke and trauma patients, with a particular focus on novel methods and potential biomarkers to aid clinicians in diagnosis, treatment, and therapy. A specific analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities was conducted, highlighting the key challenges to be faced in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ane Larrea
- Research and Development Division, IMG Pharma Biotech, 48170 Zamudio, Spain; (A.L.); (A.E.); (E.D.-M.); (E.A.)
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain;
| | - Ane Elexpe
- Research and Development Division, IMG Pharma Biotech, 48170 Zamudio, Spain; (A.L.); (A.E.); (E.D.-M.); (E.A.)
| | - Eguzkiñe Díez-Martín
- Research and Development Division, IMG Pharma Biotech, 48170 Zamudio, Spain; (A.L.); (A.E.); (E.D.-M.); (E.A.)
- Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - María Torrecilla
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain;
| | - Egoitz Astigarraga
- Research and Development Division, IMG Pharma Biotech, 48170 Zamudio, Spain; (A.L.); (A.E.); (E.D.-M.); (E.A.)
| | - Gabriel Barreda-Gómez
- Research and Development Division, IMG Pharma Biotech, 48170 Zamudio, Spain; (A.L.); (A.E.); (E.D.-M.); (E.A.)
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5
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Chen SY, Yang RL, Wu XC, Zhao DZ, Fu SP, Lin FQ, Li LY, Yu LM, Zhang Q, Zhang T. Mesenchymal Stem Cell Transplantation: Neuroprotection and Nerve Regeneration After Spinal Cord Injury. J Inflamm Res 2023; 16:4763-4776. [PMID: 37881652 PMCID: PMC10595983 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s428425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal Cord Injury (SCI), with its morbidity characteristics of high disability rate and high mortality rate, is a disease that is highly destructive to both the physiology and psychology of the patient, and for which there is still a lack of effective treatment. Following spinal cord injury, a cascade of secondary injury reactions known as ischemia, peripheral inflammatory cell infiltration, oxidative stress, etc. create a microenvironment that is unfavorable to neural recovery and ultimately results in apoptosis and necrosis of neurons and glial cells. Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) transplantation has emerged as a more promising therapeutic options in recent years. MSC can promote spinal cord injury repair through a variety of mechanisms, including immunomodulation, neuroprotection, and nerve regeneration, giving patients with spinal cord injury hope. In this paper, it is discussed the neuroprotection and nerve regeneration components of MSCs' therapeutic method for treating spinal cord injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Yu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Rui-Lin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiang-Chong Wu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - De-Zhi Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Sheng-Ping Fu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Feng-Qin Lin
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lin-Yan Li
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Li-Mei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
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Zeng CW, Tsai HJ. The Promising Role of a Zebrafish Model Employed in Neural Regeneration Following a Spinal Cord Injury. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:13938. [PMID: 37762240 PMCID: PMC10530783 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241813938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/09/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating event that results in a wide range of physical impairments and disabilities. Despite the advances in our understanding of the biological response to injured tissue, no effective treatments are available for SCIs at present. Some studies have addressed this issue by exploring the potential of cell transplantation therapy. However, because of the abnormal microenvironment in injured tissue, the survival rate of transplanted cells is often low, thus limiting the efficacy of such treatments. Many studies have attempted to overcome these obstacles using a variety of cell types and animal models. Recent studies have shown the utility of zebrafish as a model of neural regeneration following SCIs, including the proliferation and migration of various cell types and the involvement of various progenitor cells. In this review, we discuss some of the current challenges in SCI research, including the accurate identification of cell types involved in neural regeneration, the adverse microenvironment created by SCIs, attenuated immune responses that inhibit nerve regeneration, and glial scar formation that prevents axonal regeneration. More in-depth studies are needed to fully understand the neural regeneration mechanisms, proteins, and signaling pathways involved in the complex interactions between the SCI microenvironment and transplanted cells in non-mammals, particularly in the zebrafish model, which could, in turn, lead to new therapeutic approaches to treat SCIs in humans and other mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Wei Zeng
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA;
- Hamon Center for Regenerative Science and Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Huai-Jen Tsai
- Department of Life Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 242062, Taiwan
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7
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Ding Y, Chen Q. The NF-κB Pathway: a Focus on Inflammatory Responses in Spinal Cord Injury. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:5292-5308. [PMID: 37286724 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03411-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a type of central nervous system trauma that can lead to severe nerve injury. Inflammatory reaction after injury is an important pathological process leading to secondary injury. Long-term stimulation of inflammation can further deteriorate the microenvironment of the injured site, leading to the deterioration of neural function. Understanding the signaling pathways that regulate responses after SCI, especially inflammatory responses, is critical for the development of new therapeutic targets and approaches. Nuclear transfer factor-κB (NF-κB) has long been recognized as a key factor in regulating inflammatory responses. The NF-κB pathway is closely related to the pathological process of SCI. Inhibition of this pathway can improve the inflammatory microenvironment and promote the recovery of neural function after SCI. Therefore, the NF-κB pathway may be a potential therapeutic target for SCI. This article reviews the mechanism of inflammatory response after SCI and the characteristics of NF-κB pathway, emphasizing the effect of inhibiting NF-κB on the inflammatory response of SCI to provide a theoretical basis for the biological treatment of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Ding
- Department of Spine Surgery, Ganzhou People's Hospital, 16 Meiguan Avenue, Ganzhou, Jiangxi Province, 341000, People's Republic of China
- The Affiliated Ganzhou Hospital of Nanchang University, 16 Meiguan Avenue, Ganzhou, Jiangxi Province, 341000, People's Republic of China
| | - Qin Chen
- Department of Spine Surgery, Ganzhou People's Hospital, 16 Meiguan Avenue, Ganzhou, Jiangxi Province, 341000, People's Republic of China.
- The Affiliated Ganzhou Hospital of Nanchang University, 16 Meiguan Avenue, Ganzhou, Jiangxi Province, 341000, People's Republic of China.
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8
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Maugeri G, Amato A, Sortino M, D Agata V, Musumeci G. The Influence of Exercise on Oxidative Stress after Spinal Cord Injury: A Narrative Review. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1401. [PMID: 37507940 PMCID: PMC10376509 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12071401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is an irreversible disease resulting in partial or total loss of sensory and motor function. The pathophysiology of SCI is characterized by an initial primary injury phase followed by a secondary phase in which reactive oxygen species (ROSs) and associated oxidative stress play hallmark roles. Physical exercise is an indispensable means of promoting psychophysical well-being and improving quality of life. It positively influences the neuromuscular, cardiovascular, respiratory, and immune systems. Moreover, exercise may provide a mechanism to regulate the variation and equilibrium between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. After a brief overview of spinal cord anatomy and the different types of spinal cord injury, the purpose of this review is to investigate the evidence regarding the effect of exercise on oxidative stress among individuals with SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazia Maugeri
- Section of Anatomy, Histology and Movement Sciences, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Alessandra Amato
- Section of Anatomy, Histology and Movement Sciences, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Martina Sortino
- Section of Anatomy, Histology and Movement Sciences, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Velia D Agata
- Section of Anatomy, Histology and Movement Sciences, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Musumeci
- Section of Anatomy, Histology and Movement Sciences, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
- Research Center on Motor Activities (CRAM), University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy
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9
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Mays EA, Ellis EB, Hussain Z, Parajuli P, Sundararaghavan HG. Enzyme-Mediated Nerve Growth Factor Release from Nanofibers Using Gelatin Microspheres. Tissue Eng Part A 2023; 29:333-343. [PMID: 37016821 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2022.0205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury is a complex environment, with many conflicting growth factors present at different times throughout the injury timeline. Delivery of multiple growth factors has received mixed results, highlighting a need to consider the timing of delivery for possibly antagonistic growth factors. Cell-mediated degradation of delivery vehicles for delayed release of growth factors offers an attractive way to exploit the highly active immune response in the spinal cord injury environment. In this study, growth factor-loaded gelatin microspheres (GMS) combined with methacrylated hyaluronic acid (MeHA) were electrospun to create GMS fibers (GMSF) for delayed release of growth factors (GFs). GMS were successfully combined with MeHA while electrospinning, with an average fiber diameter of 365 ± 10 nm and 44% ± 8% fiber alignment. GMSF with nerve growth factor (NGF) was tested on dissociated chick dorsal root ganglia cells. We further tested the effect of M1 macrophage-conditioned media (M1CM) to simulate macrophage invasion after spinal cord injury for cell-mediated degradation. We hypothesized that neurons grown on GMSF with loaded NGF would exhibit longer neurites in M1CM, showing a release of functional NGF, as compared with controls. GMSF in M1CM was significantly different from MeHA in serum-free media (SFM) and M0-conditioned media (M0CM), as well as GMSF in M0CM (p < 0.05). Moreover, GMSF + NGF in all media conditions were significantly different from MeHA in SFM and M0CM (p < 0.05). The goal of this study was to develop a biomaterial system where drug delivery is triggered by immune response, allowing for more control and longer exposure to encapsulated drugs. The spinal cord injury microenvironment is known to have a robust immune response, making this immune-medicated drug release system particularly significant for directed repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Mays
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Eric B Ellis
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Zahin Hussain
- School of Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Prahlad Parajuli
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
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10
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Guha L, Singh N, Kumar H. Different Ways to Die: Cell Death Pathways and Their Association With Spinal Cord Injury. Neurospine 2023; 20:430-448. [PMID: 37401061 PMCID: PMC10323345 DOI: 10.14245/ns.2244976.488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell death is a systematic/nonsystematic process of cessation of normal morphology and functional properties of the cell to replace and recycle old cells with new also promoting inflammation in some cases. It is a complicated process comprising multiple pathways. Some are well-explored, and others have just begun to be. The research on appropriate control of cell death pathways after acute and chronic damage of neuronal cells is being widely researched today due to the lack of regeneration and recovering potential of a neuronal cell after sustaining damage and the inability to control the direction of neuronal growth. In the progression and onset of various neurological diseases, impairments in programmed cell death signaling processes, like necroptosis, apoptosis, ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and pathways directly or indirectly linked, like autophagy as in nonprogrammed necrosis, are observed. Spinal cord injury (SCI) involves the temporary or permanent disruption of motor activities due to the death of a neuronal and glial cell in the spinal cord accompanied by axonal degeneration. Recent years have seen a significant increase in research on the intricate biochemical interactions that occur after a SCI. Different cell death pathways may significantly impact the subsequent damage processes that lead to the eventual neurological deficiency after an injury to the spinal cord. A better knowledge of the molecular basis of the involved cell death pathways might help enhance neuronal and glial survival and neurological deficits, promoting a curative path for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lahanya Guha
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
| | - Nidhi Singh
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)- Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
| | - Hemant Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)-Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
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11
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Xin W, Baokun Z, Zhiheng C, Qiang S, Erzhu Y, Jianguang X, Xiaofeng L. Biodegradable bilayer hydrogel membranes loaded with bazedoxifene attenuate blood-spinal cord barrier disruption via the NF-κB pathway after acute spinal cord injury. Acta Biomater 2023; 159:140-155. [PMID: 36736849 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2023.01.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
After spinal cord injury (SCI), blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) disruption and hemorrhage lead to blood cell infiltration and progressive secondary injuries. Therefore, early restoration of the BSCB represents a key step in the treatment of SCI. Bazedoxifene (BZA), a third-generation estrogen receptor modulator, has recently been reported to inhibit inflammation and alleviate blood-brain barrier disruption caused by traumatic brain injury, attracting great interest in the field of central nervous system injury and repair. However, whether BZA can attenuate BSCB disruption and contribute to SCI repair remains unknown. Here, we developed a new type of biomaterial carrier and constructed a BZA-loaded HSPT (hyaluronic acid (HA), sodium alginate (SA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), tetramethylpropane (TPA) material construction) (HSPT@Be) system to effectively deliver BZA to the site of SCI. We found that HSPT@Be could significantly reduce inflammation in the spinal cord in SCI rats and attenuate BSCB disruption by providing covering scaffold, inhibiting oxidative stress, and upregulating tight junction proteins, which was mediated by regulation of the NF-κB/MMP signaling pathway. Importantly, functional assessment showed the evident improvement of behavioral functions in the HSPT@Be-treated SCI rats. These results indicated that HSPT@Be can attenuate BSCB disruption via the NF-κB pathway after SCI, shedding light on its potential therapeutic benefit for SCI. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: After spinal cord injury, blood-spinal cord barrier disruption and hemorrhage lead to blood cell infiltration and progressive secondary injuries. Bazedoxifene has recently been reported to inhibit inflammation and alleviate blood-brain barrier disruption caused by traumatic brain injury. However, whether BZA can attenuate BSCB disruption and contribute to SCI repair remains unknown. In this study, we developed a new type of biomaterial carrier and constructed a bazedoxifene-loaded HSPT (HSPT@Be) system to efficiently treat SCI. HSPT@Be could provide protective coverage, inhibit oxidative stress, and upregulate tight junction proteins through NF-κB/MMP pathway both in vivo and in vitro, therefore attenuating BSCB disruption. Our study fills the application gap of biomaterials in BSCB restoration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang Xin
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China
| | - Zhang Baokun
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China
| | - Chen Zhiheng
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China
| | - Shi Qiang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China
| | - Yang Erzhu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China
| | - Xu Jianguang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China.
| | - Lian Xiaofeng
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China.
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12
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Chen J, Shen Y, Shao X, Wu W. An emerging role of inflammasomes in spinal cord injury and spinal cord tumor. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1119591. [PMID: 36969234 PMCID: PMC10033975 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1119591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) and spinal cord tumor are devastating events causing structural and functional impairment of the spinal cord and resulting in high morbidity and mortality; these lead to a psychological burden and financial pressure on the patient. These spinal cord damages likely disrupt sensory, motor, and autonomic functions. Unfortunately, the optimal treatment of and spinal cord tumors is limited, and the molecular mechanisms underlying these disorders are unclear. The role of the inflammasome in neuroinflammation in diverse diseases is becoming increasingly important. The inflammasome is an intracellular multiprotein complex and participates in the activation of caspase-1 and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18. The inflammasome in the spinal cord is involved in the stimulation of immune-inflammatory responses through the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, thereby mediating further spinal cord damage. In this review, we highlight the role of inflammasomes in SCI and spinal cord tumors. Targeting inflammasomes is a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of SCI and spinal cord tumors.
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13
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Lee CYP, Chooi WH, Ng SY, Chew SY. Modulating neuroinflammation through molecular, cellular and biomaterial-based approaches to treat spinal cord injury. Bioeng Transl Med 2023; 8:e10389. [PMID: 36925680 PMCID: PMC10013833 DOI: 10.1002/btm2.10389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The neuroinflammatory response that is elicited after spinal cord injury contributes to both tissue damage and reparative processes. The complex and dynamic cellular and molecular changes within the spinal cord microenvironment result in a functional imbalance of immune cells and their modulatory factors. To facilitate wound healing and repair, it is necessary to manipulate the immunological pathways during neuroinflammation to achieve successful therapeutic interventions. In this review, recent advancements and fresh perspectives on the consequences of neuroinflammation after SCI and modulation of the inflammatory responses through the use of molecular-, cellular-, and biomaterial-based therapies to promote tissue regeneration and functional recovery will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl Yi-Pin Lee
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology ASTAR Research Entities Singapore Singapore
| | - Wai Hon Chooi
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology ASTAR Research Entities Singapore Singapore
| | - Shi-Yan Ng
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology ASTAR Research Entities Singapore Singapore
| | - Sing Yian Chew
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering Nanyang Technological University Singapore Singapore.,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine Nanyang Technological University Singapore Singapore.,School of Materials Science and Engineering Nanyang Technological University Singapore Singapore
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14
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Luo Y, Yao F, Shi Y, Zhu Z, Xiao Z, You X, Liu Y, Yu S, Tian D, Cheng L, Zheng M, Jing J. Tocilizumab promotes repair of spinal cord injury by facilitating the restoration of tight junctions between vascular endothelial cells. Fluids Barriers CNS 2023; 20:1. [PMID: 36624478 PMCID: PMC9830903 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-022-00399-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Our previous study demonstrated that M1 macrophages could impair tight junctions (TJs) between vascular endothelial cells by secreting interleukin-6 (IL-6) after spinal cord injury (SCI). Tocilizumab, as a humanized IL-6 receptor (IL-6R) monoclonal antibody approved for the clinic, has been applied in the treatment of neurological diseases in recent years, but the treatment effect of Tocilizumab on the TJs restoration of the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) after SCI remains unclear. This study aimed to explore the effect of Tocilizumab on the restoration of TJs between vascular endothelial cells and axon regeneration after SCI. METHODS In this study, the mouse complete spinal cord crush injury model was used, and Tocilizumab was continuously injected intrathecally until the day of sample collection. A PBS injection in the same location was included as a control. At 14 days postinjury (dpi) and 28 dpi, spinal cord tissue sections were examined via tissue immunofluorescence. The Basso Mouse Scale (BMS) scores and footprint analysis were used to verify the effect of Tocilizumab on the recovery of motor function in mice after SCI. RESULTS We demonstrated that depletion of macrophages has no effect on axon regeneration and motor functional recovery after SCI, but mice subjected to Tocilizumab showed a significant increase in axon regeneration and a better recovery in motor function during the chronic phase after SCI. Moreover, our study demonstrated that at 14 and 28 dpi, the expression of claudin-5 (CLDN5) and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) between vascular endothelial cells was significantly increased and the leakage of BSCB was significantly reduced in the injured core after daily intrathecal injection of Tocilizumab. Notably, the infiltration of CD68+ macrophages/microglia and the formation of fibrotic scar were decreased in the injured core after Tocilizumab treatment. Tocilizumab treatment could effectively reduce the IL-6 expression in macrophages in the injured core. CONCLUSION The application of Tocilizumab to antagonize IL-6R can effectively reduce the expression of IL-6 in macrophages and facilitate TJs restoration of the BSCB, which is beneficial for axon regeneration and motor functional recovery after SCI. Hence, Tocilizumab treatment is a potential therapeutic strategy for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Luo
- grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XDepartment of Orthopaedics & Spine Surgery, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XInstitute of Orthopaedics, Research Center for Translational Medicine, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.412679.f0000 0004 1771 3402Department of Orthopedic Disease and Oncology Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China
| | - Fei Yao
- grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XDepartment of Orthopaedics & Spine Surgery, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XInstitute of Orthopaedics, Research Center for Translational Medicine, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China
| | - Yi Shi
- grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XDepartment of Orthopaedics & Spine Surgery, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XInstitute of Orthopaedics, Research Center for Translational Medicine, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China
| | - Zhenyu Zhu
- grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XDepartment of Orthopaedics & Spine Surgery, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XInstitute of Orthopaedics, Research Center for Translational Medicine, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China
| | - Zhaoming Xiao
- grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XDepartment of Orthopaedics & Spine Surgery, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XInstitute of Orthopaedics, Research Center for Translational Medicine, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China
| | - Xingyu You
- grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XDepartment of Orthopaedics & Spine Surgery, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XInstitute of Orthopaedics, Research Center for Translational Medicine, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China
| | - Yanchang Liu
- grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XDepartment of Orthopaedics & Spine Surgery, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XInstitute of Orthopaedics, Research Center for Translational Medicine, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China
| | - Shuisheng Yu
- grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XDepartment of Orthopaedics & Spine Surgery, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XInstitute of Orthopaedics, Research Center for Translational Medicine, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China
| | - Dasheng Tian
- grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XDepartment of Orthopaedics & Spine Surgery, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XInstitute of Orthopaedics, Research Center for Translational Medicine, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China
| | - Li Cheng
- grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XDepartment of Orthopaedics & Spine Surgery, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XInstitute of Orthopaedics, Research Center for Translational Medicine, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China
| | - Meige Zheng
- grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XDepartment of Orthopaedics & Spine Surgery, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XInstitute of Orthopaedics, Research Center for Translational Medicine, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China
| | - Juehua Jing
- grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XDepartment of Orthopaedics & Spine Surgery, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China ,grid.186775.a0000 0000 9490 772XInstitute of Orthopaedics, Research Center for Translational Medicine, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601 China
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15
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Sterner RC, Sterner RM. Immune response following traumatic spinal cord injury: Pathophysiology and therapies. Front Immunol 2023; 13:1084101. [PMID: 36685598 PMCID: PMC9853461 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1084101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating condition that is often associated with significant loss of function and/or permanent disability. The pathophysiology of SCI is complex and occurs in two phases. First, the mechanical damage from the trauma causes immediate acute cell dysfunction and cell death. Then, secondary mechanisms of injury further propagate the cell dysfunction and cell death over the course of days, weeks, or even months. Among the secondary injury mechanisms, inflammation has been shown to be a key determinant of the secondary injury severity and significantly worsens cell death and functional outcomes. Thus, in addition to surgical management of SCI, selectively targeting the immune response following SCI could substantially decrease the progression of secondary injury and improve patient outcomes. In order to develop such therapies, a detailed molecular understanding of the timing of the immune response following SCI is necessary. Recently, several studies have mapped the cytokine/chemokine and cell proliferation patterns following SCI. In this review, we examine the immune response underlying the pathophysiology of SCI and assess both current and future therapies including pharmaceutical therapies, stem cell therapy, and the exciting potential of extracellular vesicle therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert C. Sterner
- School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Rosalie M. Sterner
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States,*Correspondence: Rosalie M. Sterner,
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16
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Xia Y, Zhu J, Yang R, Wang H, Li Y, Fu C. Mesenchymal stem cells in the treatment of spinal cord injury: Mechanisms, current advances and future challenges. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1141601. [PMID: 36911700 PMCID: PMC9999104 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1141601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) has considerable impact on patient physical, mental, and financial health. Secondary SCI is associated with inflammation, vascular destruction, and subsequent permanent damage to the nervous system. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have anti-inflammatory properties, promoting vascular regeneration and the release neuro-nutrients, and are a promising strategy for the treatment of SCI. Preclinical studies have shown that MSCs promote sensory and motor function recovery in rats. In clinical trials, MSCs have been reported to improve the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) sensory and motor scores. However, the effectiveness of MSCs in treating patients with SCI remains controversial. MSCs promote tumorigenesis and ensuring the survival of MSCs in the hostile environment of SCI is challenging. In this article we examine the evidence on the pathophysiological changes occurring after SCI. We then review the underlying mechanisms of MSCs in the treatment of SCI and summarize the potential application of MSCs in clinical practice. Finally, we highlight the challenges surrounding the use of MSCs in the treatment of SCI and discuss future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanliang Xia
- Department of Spine Surgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jianshu Zhu
- Department of Spine Surgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Ruohan Yang
- Cancer Center, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Hengyi Wang
- Department of Spine Surgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yuehong Li
- Department of Spine Surgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Changfeng Fu
- Department of Spine Surgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
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17
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Szymoniuk M, Litak J, Sakwa L, Dryla A, Zezuliński W, Czyżewski W, Kamieniak P, Blicharski T. Molecular Mechanisms and Clinical Application of Multipotent Stem Cells for Spinal Cord Injury. Cells 2022; 12:120. [PMID: 36611914 PMCID: PMC9818156 DOI: 10.3390/cells12010120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) is a common neurological disorder with devastating psychical and psychosocial sequelae. The majority of patients after SCI suffer from permanent disability caused by motor dysfunction, impaired sensation, neuropathic pain, spasticity as well as urinary complications, and a small number of patients experience a complete recovery. Current standard treatment modalities of the SCI aim to prevent secondary injury and provide limited recovery of lost neurological functions. Stem Cell Therapy (SCT) represents an emerging treatment approach using the differentiation, paracrine, and self-renewal capabilities of stem cells to regenerate the injured spinal cord. To date, multipotent stem cells including mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), neural stem cells (NSCs), and hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) represent the most investigated types of stem cells for the treatment of SCI in preclinical and clinical studies. The microenvironment of SCI has a significant impact on the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of transplanted stem cells. Therefore, a deep understanding of the pathophysiology of SCI and molecular mechanisms through which stem cells act may help improve the treatment efficacy of SCT and find new therapeutic approaches such as stem-cell-derived exosomes, gene-modified stem cells, scaffolds, and nanomaterials. In this literature review, the pathogenesis of SCI and molecular mechanisms of action of multipotent stem cells including MSCs, NSCs, and HSCs are comprehensively described. Moreover, the clinical efficacy of multipotent stem cells in SCI treatment, an optimal protocol of stem cell administration, and recent therapeutic approaches based on or combined with SCT are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Szymoniuk
- Student Scientific Association at the Department of Neurosurgery and Pediatric Neurosurgery, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, 20-954 Lublin, Poland
| | - Jakub Litak
- Department of Neurosurgery and Pediatric Neurosurgery, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, 20-954 Lublin, Poland
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 4A, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Leon Sakwa
- Student Scientific Society, Kazimierz Pulaski University of Technologies and Humanities in Radom, Chrobrego 27, 26-600 Radom, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Dryla
- Student Scientific Association at the Department of Neurosurgery and Pediatric Neurosurgery, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, 20-954 Lublin, Poland
| | - Wojciech Zezuliński
- Student Scientific Association at the Department of Neurosurgery and Pediatric Neurosurgery, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, 20-954 Lublin, Poland
| | - Wojciech Czyżewski
- Department of Neurosurgery and Pediatric Neurosurgery, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, 20-954 Lublin, Poland
- Department of Didactics and Medical Simulation, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 4, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Piotr Kamieniak
- Department of Neurosurgery and Pediatric Neurosurgery, Medical University of Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, 20-954 Lublin, Poland
| | - Tomasz Blicharski
- Department of Rehabilitation and Orthopaedics, Medical University in Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, 20-954 Lublin, Poland
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18
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Molecular Mechanisms in the Vascular and Nervous Systems following Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury. LIFE (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 13:life13010009. [PMID: 36675958 PMCID: PMC9866624 DOI: 10.3390/life13010009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) induces various complex pathological processes that cause physical impairment and psychological devastation. The two phases of SCI are primary mechanical damage (the immediate result of trauma) and secondary injury (which occurs over a period of minutes to weeks). After the mechanical impact, vascular disruption, inflammation, demyelination, neuronal cell death, and glial scar formation occur during the acute phase. This sequence of events impedes nerve regeneration. In the nervous system, various extracellular secretory factors such as neurotrophic factors, growth factors, and cytokines are involved in these events. In the vascular system, the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) is damaged, allowing immune cells to infiltrate the parenchyma. Later, endogenous angiogenesis is promoted during the subacute phase. In this review, we describe the roles of secretory factors in the nervous and vascular systems following traumatic SCI, and discuss the outcomes of their therapeutic application in traumatic SCI.
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19
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Transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells decreases local and serological monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 level during the acute phase of rat spinal cord injury. Neuroreport 2022; 33:729-741. [PMID: 36250430 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000001839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1) is one of the most upregulated cytokines in the spinal cord and serum throughout acute spinal cord injury (SCI). Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) transplantation improves SCI through multiple mechanisms, including immunomodulation. Our study aimed to investigate whether OECs ameliorate acute inflammation after SCI by modulating MCP1 expression. METHODS We established a standardized clinically relevant contusion model using the NYU impactor. OECs were administered to the injured spinal cord via microinjection 30 minutes after injury. Rat locomotor functions were assessed by the Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan scale score. Time-course histopathological (H&E and IHC) analyses were performed to record rapid changes in acute inflammation at lesion epicenters. Serum MCP1 level was detected by ELISA assay. RESULTS BBB scores showed improved locomotor functional recoveries in the OECs transplantation group after SCI ( P < 0.05). Staining of H&E and CD68 illustrated that OECs transplantation attenuated inflammatory response by reducing lesion areas and infiltrating myeloid cell numbers. We further revealed significantly decreased MCP1 levels in the spinal cord and serum after OECs transplantation ( P < 0.05). Noteworthily, distinct expression levels of MCP1 were found in rats undergoing a mild injury (cord impacted from a 10-mm height) compared to the moderate injury (25-mm) group. CONCLUSION Our study reports that transplantation of OECs promotes locomotor functional recovery after SCI and alleviates acute inflammation by decreasing local and serological MCP1 levels. We provide preliminary evidence that MCP1 might serve as a potential biomarker to reflect the severity of SCI, which is of great interest in future studies.
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20
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Fu SP, Chen SY, Pang QM, Zhang M, Wu XC, Wan X, Wan WH, Ao J, Zhang T. Advances in the research of the role of macrophage/microglia polarization-mediated inflammatory response in spinal cord injury. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1014013. [PMID: 36532022 PMCID: PMC9751019 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1014013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
It is often difficult to regain neurological function following spinal cord injury (SCI). Neuroinflammation is thought to be responsible for this failure. Regulating the inflammatory response post-SCI may contribute to the recovery of neurological function. Over the past few decades, studies have found that macrophages/microglia are one of the primary effector cells in the inflammatory response following SCI. Growing evidence has documented that macrophages/microglia are plastic cells that can polarize in response to microenvironmental signals into M1 and M2 macrophages/microglia. M1 produces pro-inflammatory cytokines to induce inflammation and worsen tissue damage, while M2 has anti-inflammatory activities in wound healing and tissue regeneration. Recent studies have indicated that the transition from the M1 to the M2 phenotype of macrophage/microglia supports the regression of inflammation and tissue repair. Here, we will review the role of the inflammatory response and macrophages/microglia in SCI and repair. In addition, we will discuss potential molecular mechanisms that induce macrophage/microglia polarization, with emphasis on neuroprotective therapies that modulate macrophage/microglia polarization, which will provide new insights into therapeutic strategies for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Ping Fu
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Si-Yu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Qi-Ming Pang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Xiang-Chong Wu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Xue Wan
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Wei-Hong Wan
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Jun Ao
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,The Clinical Stem Cell Research Institute, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,*Correspondence: Tao Zhang,
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21
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Liu Z, Guo S, Dong L, Wu P, Li K, Li X, Li X, Qian H, Fu Q. A tannic acid doped hydrogel with small extracellular vesicles derived from mesenchymal stem cells promotes spinal cord repair by regulating reactive oxygen species microenvironment. Mater Today Bio 2022; 16:100425. [PMID: 36186847 PMCID: PMC9523385 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2022.100425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a serious disease of the central nervous system that is associated with a poor prognosis; furthermore, existing clinical treatments cannot restore nerve function in an effective manner. Inflammatory responses and the increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the microenvironment of the lesion are major obstacles that inhibit the recovery of SCI. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), derived from mesenchymal stem cells, are suitable options for cell-free therapy and have been shown to exert therapeutic effects in SCI, thus providing a potential strategy for microenvironment regulation. However, the effective retention, controlled release, and integration of small extracellular vesicles into injured spinal cord tissue are still a major challenge. Herein, we fabricated an N-acryloyl glycinamide/gelatin methacrylate/Laponite/Tannic acid (NAGA/GelMA/LPN/TA, NGL/T) hydrogel with sustainable sEV release (sEVs-NGL/T) to promote the recovery of motor function after SCI. The newly developed functional sEVs-NGL/T hydrogel exhibited excellent antioxidant properties in an H2O2-simulated peroxidative microenvironment in vitro. Implantation of the functional sEVs-NGL/T hydrogel in vivo could encapsulate sEVs, exhibiting efficient retention and the sustained release of sEVs, thereby synergistically inducing significant restoration of motor function and urinary tissue preservation. These positive effects can be attributed to the effective mitigation of the inflammatory and ROS microenvironment. Therefore, sEVs-NGL/T therapy provides a promising strategy for the sEV-based therapy in the treatment of SCI by comprehensively regulating the pathological microenvironment.
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Key Words
- 4-HNE, 4-hydroxynonenal
- 8-OHdG, 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine
- ChAT, choline acetyl transferase
- GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein
- HucMSCs, Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells
- Hydrogel
- Mesenchymal stem cell
- NF, neurofilament
- NGL/T, N-acryloyl glycinamide/gelatinmethacrylate/Laponite/Tannic acid
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- Reactive oxygen species
- SCI, spinal cord injury
- Small extracellular vesicle
- Spinal cord injury
- Tannic acid
- sEVs, small extracellular vesicles
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Song Guo
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Lanlan Dong
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, State Key Laboratory of Mechanical System and Vibration, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Peipei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine of Jiangsu Province, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, PR China
| | - Kewei Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Xinhua Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Xiang Li
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, State Key Laboratory of Mechanical System and Vibration, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Hui Qian
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine of Jiangsu Province, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, PR China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Medical Embryogenesis and Developmental Molecular Biology & Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo and Reproduction Engineering, Shanghai, 200040, PR China
| | - Qiang Fu
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
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22
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Wu Y, Tang Z, Zhang J, Wang Y, Liu S. Restoration of spinal cord injury: From endogenous repairing process to cellular therapy. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:1077441. [PMID: 36523818 PMCID: PMC9744968 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.1077441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) disrupts neurological pathways and impacts sensory, motor, and autonomic nerve function. There is no effective treatment for SCI currently. Numerous endogenous cells, including astrocytes, macrophages/microglia, and oligodendrocyte, are involved in the histological healing process following SCI. By interfering with cells during the SCI repair process, some advancements in the therapy of SCI have been realized. Nevertheless, the endogenous cell types engaged in SCI repair and the current difficulties these cells confront in the therapy of SCI are poorly defined, and the mechanisms underlying them are little understood. In order to better understand SCI and create new therapeutic strategies and enhance the clinical translation of SCI repair, we have comprehensively listed the endogenous cells involved in SCI repair and summarized the six most common mechanisms involved in SCI repair, including limiting the inflammatory response, protecting the spared spinal cord, enhancing myelination, facilitating neovascularization, producing neurotrophic factors, and differentiating into neural/colloidal cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Shengwen Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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Plasma Cytokines Level and Spinal Cord MRI Predict Clinical Outcome in a Rat Glial Scar Cryoinjury Model. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10102345. [DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10102345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic injury of the spinal cord is still one of the most challenging problems in the neurosurgical practice. Despite a long history of implementation of translational medicine in the field of spinal cord injury (SCI), it remains one of the most frequent causes of human disability and a critical situation for world healthcare systems. Here, we used our rat model of the of unilateral controlled SCI induced by a cryoinjury, which consistently reproduces glial scarring and posttraumatic cyst formation, and specifically evaluated histological, bioimaging and cytokine data. We propose a 10-grade scoring scale, which can objectively estimate the extent of damage of the experimental SCI according to the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) results. It provides a homogeneous and reliable visual control of the dynamics of the posttraumatic processes, which makes it possible to clearly distinguish the extent of early damage, the formation of glial scars and the development of posttraumatic syringomyelic cysts. The concentration of cytokines and chemokines in the plasma following the experimental SCI increased up to two orders of magnitude in comparison with intact animals, suggesting that a traumatic injury of the spinal cord was accompanied by a remarkable cytokine storm. Our data suggested that the levels of IL-1α, IL-1β, TNFα, GRO/KC, G-CSF, IFNγ and IL-13 may be considered as a reliable prognostic index for SCI. Finally, we demonstrated that MRI together with plasma cytokines level directly correlated and reliably predicted the clinical outcome following SCI. The present study brings novel noninvasive and intravital methods for the evaluation of the therapeutic efficacy of SCI treatment protocols, which may be easily translated into the clinical practice.
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Yuan H, Zhang B, Ma J, Zhang Y, Tuo Y, Li X. Analysis of gene expression profiles in two spinal cord injury models. Eur J Med Res 2022; 27:156. [PMID: 35999613 PMCID: PMC9400253 DOI: 10.1186/s40001-022-00785-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives To analyze the changes of gene expression at different timepoints after spinal cord injury (SCI) with tenth segment thoracic injury. Methods Two SCI models, the complete paraplegia (H) and Allen’s strike (D) methods were applied to induce SCI in rats, and transcriptome sequencing was performed 1, 3, 7, 14, 56, and 70 days after SCI, respectively. Principal component analysis, differentially expressed gene analysis, and hierarchical clustering analysis were applied to analyze the differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Gene Ontology GO enrichment analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analysis, and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis revealed the pathway of gene enrichment. Results There were 1,907, 3,120, 3,728, 978, 2,319, and 3,798 DEGs in the complete paraplegia group and 2,380, 878, 1,543, 6,040, 1,945, and 3,850 DEGs in the Allen’s strike method group and after SCI at 1, 3, 7, 14, 56, and 70 days, respectively. The transcriptome contours of D1, H1, D3, and H14 were clustered with C; the H56, D56, H70, and D70 transcriptome contours were similar and clustered together. H3, D7, and H7 were clustered together, and D14 was clustered separately. The transcriptome differences of the two SCI models were mainly concentrated during the first 2 weeks after SCI. The DEGs after SCI in the complete paraplegia group were more concentrated. Most of the early transcriptional regulation stabilized within 2 weeks after injury. Conclusions There were DEGs between the two SCI models. Through the gene changes and pathway enrichment of the entire time period after SCI, the molecular mechanism of SCI repair was revealed in depth, which provided a reference for SCI treatment in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haifeng Yuan
- Department of Spinal Orthopedics, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, No. 804 Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Bi Zhang
- Department of Anesthesia, Ningbo Medical Center Li Huili Hospital, Ningbo, 315046, China
| | - Junchi Ma
- Department of Orthopaedics, Affiliated Hospital of Gansu College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou, 730099, China
| | - Yufei Zhang
- The third department of spine, Baoji Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Baoji, 721001, China
| | - Yifan Tuo
- Clinical Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, China
| | - Xusheng Li
- Department of Spinal Orthopedics, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, No. 804 Shengli Street, Xingqing District, Yinchuan, 750004, China.
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25
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Main Cations and Cellular Biology of Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury. Cells 2022; 11:cells11162503. [PMID: 36010579 PMCID: PMC9406880 DOI: 10.3390/cells11162503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury is a life-changing condition with a significant socio-economic impact on patients, their relatives, their caregivers, and even the community. Despite considerable medical advances, there is still a lack of options for the effective treatment of these patients. The major complexity and significant disabling potential of the pathophysiology that spinal cord trauma triggers are the main factors that have led to incremental scientific research on this topic, including trying to describe the molecular and cellular mechanisms that regulate spinal cord repair and regeneration. Scientists have identified various practical approaches to promote cell growth and survival, remyelination, and neuroplasticity in this part of the central nervous system. This review focuses on specific detailed aspects of the involvement of cations in the cell biology of such pathology and on the possibility of repairing damaged spinal cord tissue. In this context, the cellular biology of sodium, potassium, lithium, calcium, and magnesium is essential for understanding the related pathophysiology and also the possibilities to counteract the harmful effects of traumatic events. Lithium, sodium, potassium—monovalent cations—and calcium and magnesium—bivalent cations—can influence many protein–protein interactions, gene transcription, ion channel functions, cellular energy processes—phosphorylation, oxidation—inflammation, etc. For data systematization and synthesis, we used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyzes (PRISMA) methodology, trying to make, as far as possible, some order in seeing the “big forest” instead of “trees”. Although we would have expected a large number of articles to address the topic, we were still surprised to find only 51 unique articles after removing duplicates from the 207 articles initially identified. Our article integrates data on many biochemical processes influenced by cations at the molecular level to understand the real possibilities of therapeutic intervention—which must maintain a very narrow balance in cell ion concentrations. Multimolecular, multi-cellular: neuronal cells, glial cells, non-neuronal cells, but also multi-ionic interactions play an important role in the balance between neuro-degenerative pathophysiological processes and the development of effective neuroprotective strategies. This article emphasizes the need for studying cation dynamics as an important future direction.
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26
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Jiang Y, Guo J, Tang X, Wang X, Hao D, Yang H. The Immunological Roles of Olfactory Ensheathing Cells in the Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury. Front Immunol 2022; 13:881162. [PMID: 35669779 PMCID: PMC9163387 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.881162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating type of neurological disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) with high mortality and disability. The pathological processes of SCI can usually be described as two stages, namely, primary and acute secondary injuries. Secondary injury produces more significant exacerbations of the initial injury. Among all the mechanisms of secondary damage, infection and inflammatory responses, as the principle culprits in initiating the second phase of SCI, can greatly contribute to the severity of SCI and numerous sequelae after SCI. Therefore, effectively antagonizing pro-inflammatory responses may be a promising treatment strategy to facilitate functional recovery after SCI. Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), a unique type of glial cells, have increasingly become potential candidates for cell-based therapy in the injured CNS. Strikingly, there is growing evidence that the mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory role of OECs are associated with the immune properties and secretory functions of these cells responsible for anti-neuroinflammation and immunoregulatory effects, leading to maintenance of the internal microenvironment. Accordingly, a more profound understanding of the mechanism of OEC immunological functions in the treatment of SCI would be beneficial to improve the therapeutic clinical applications of OECs for SCI. In this review, we mainly summarize recent research on the cellular and molecular immune attributes of OECs. The unique biological functions of these cells in promoting neural regeneration are discussed in relation of the development of novel therapies for CNS injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yizhen Jiang
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Jianbin Guo
- Department of Joint Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Xiangwen Tang
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
- Basic Medical School Academy, Shaanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
| | - Xiaohui Wang
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Dingjun Hao
- Department of Spine Surgery, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
| | - Hao Yang
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
- *Correspondence: Hao Yang,
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27
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Zhao R, Wu X, Bi XY, Yang H, Zhang Q. Baicalin attenuates blood-spinal cord barrier disruption and apoptosis through PI3K/Akt signaling pathway after spinal cord injury. Neural Regen Res 2022; 17:1080-1087. [PMID: 34558536 PMCID: PMC8552841 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.324857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Baicalin is a natural active ingredient isolated from Scutellariae Radix that can cross the blood-brain barrier and exhibits neuroprotective effects on multiple central nervous system diseases. However, the mechanism behind the neuroprotective effects remains unclear. In this study, rat models of spinal cord injury were established using a modified Allen's impact method and then treated with intraperitoneal injection of Baicalin. The results revealed that Baicalin greatly increased the Basso, Beattie, Bresnahan Locomotor Rating Scale score, reduced blood-spinal cord barrier permeability, decreased the expression of Bax, Caspase-3, and nuclear factor κB, increased the expression of Bcl-2, and reduced neuronal apoptosis and pathological spinal cord injury. SH-SY5Y cell models of excitotoxicity were established by application of 10 mM glutamate for 12 hours and then treated with 40 µM Baicalin for 48 hours to investigate the mechanism of action of Baicalin. The results showed that Baicalin reversed tight junction protein expression tendencies (occludin and ZO-1) and apoptosis-related protein expression (Bax, Bcl-2, Caspase-3, and nuclear factor-κB), and also led to up-regulation of PI3K and Akt phosphorylation. These effects on Bax, Bcl-2, and Caspase-3 were blocked by pretreatment with the PI3K inhibitor LY294002. These findings suggest that Baicalin can inhibit blood-spinal cord barrier permeability after spinal cord injury and reduce neuronal apoptosis, possibly by activating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. This study was approved by Animal Ethics Committee of Xi'an Jiaotong University on March 6, 2014.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Zhao
- College of Pharmacy, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Development of Endangered Crude Drugs in Northwest China, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Xue Wu
- College of Pharmacy, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Development of Endangered Crude Drugs in Northwest China, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Xue-Yuan Bi
- Department of Pharmacy, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Hao Yang
- College of Pharmacy, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- College of Pharmacy, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Medicinal Resources and Natural Pharmaceutical Chemistry, National Engineering Laboratory for Resource Development of Endangered Crude Drugs in Northwest China, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
- Translational Medicine Center, Hong Hui Hospital, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
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Medvediev VV, Oleksenko NP, Pichkur LD, Verbovska SA, Savosko SI, Draguntsova NG, Lontkovskiy YA, Vaslovych VV, Tsymbalyuk VI. Effect of Implantation of a Fibrin Matrix Associated with Neonatal Brain Cells on the Course of an Experimental Spinal Cord Injury. CYTOL GENET+ 2022. [DOI: 10.3103/s0095452722020086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Progression in translational research on spinal cord injury based on microenvironment imbalance. Bone Res 2022; 10:35. [PMID: 35396505 PMCID: PMC8993811 DOI: 10.1038/s41413-022-00199-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2021] [Revised: 11/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) leads to loss of motor and sensory function below the injury level and imposes a considerable burden on patients, families, and society. Repair of the injured spinal cord has been recognized as a global medical challenge for many years. Significant progress has been made in research on the pathological mechanism of spinal cord injury. In particular, with the development of gene regulation, cell sequencing, and cell tracing technologies, in-depth explorations of the SCI microenvironment have become more feasible. However, translational studies related to repair of the injured spinal cord have not yielded significant results. This review summarizes the latest research progress on two aspects of SCI pathology: intraneuronal microenvironment imbalance and regenerative microenvironment imbalance. We also review repair strategies for the injured spinal cord based on microenvironment imbalance, including medications, cell transplantation, exosomes, tissue engineering, cell reprogramming, and rehabilitation. The current state of translational research on SCI and future directions are also discussed. The development of a combined, precise, and multitemporal strategy for repairing the injured spinal cord is a potential future direction.
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30
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Chen H, Feng Z, Min L, Deng W, Tan M, Hong J, Gong Q, Zhang D, Liu H, Hou J. Vagus Nerve Stimulation Reduces Neuroinflammation Through Microglia Polarization Regulation to Improve Functional Recovery After Spinal Cord Injury. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:813472. [PMID: 35464311 PMCID: PMC9022634 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.813472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BackgroundSpinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating disease that lacks effective treatment. Interestingly, recent studies indicated that vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), neuromodulation that is widely used in a variety of central nervous system (CNS) diseases, improved motor function recovery after SCI. But the exact underlying mechanism of how VNS ameliorates SCI is unclear. This study aimed to confirm the efficacy and further explore the potential therapeutic mechanism of VNS in SCI.MethodA T10 spinal cord compression model was established in adult female Sprague-Dawley rats. Then the stimulation electrode was placed in the left cervical vagus nerve (forming Sham-VNS, VNS, and VNS-MLA groups). Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan (BBB) behavioral scores and Motor evoked potentials (MEPs) analysis were used to detect motor function. A combination of histological and molecular methods was used to clarify the relevant mechanism.ResultsCompared with the Sham-VNS group, the VNS group exhibited better functional recovery, reduced scar formation (both glial and fibrotic scars), tissue damage, and dark neurons, but these beneficial effects of VNS were diminished after alpha 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAchR) blockade. Specifically, VNS inhibited the pro-inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 and increased the expression of the anti-inflammatory factors IL-10. Furthermore, we found that VNS promotes the shift of M1-polarized Iba-1+/CD86+ microglia to M2-polarized Iba-1+/CD206+ microglia via upregulating α7nAchR to alleviate neuroinflammation after SCI.ConclusionOur results demonstrated that VNS promotes microglial M2 polarization through upregulating α7nAChR to reduce neuroinflammation, thus improving motor function recovery after SCI. These findings indicate VNS might be a promising neuromodulation strategy for SCI.
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Park CS, Lee JY, Choi HY, Yune TY. Suppression of TRPM7 by carvacrol protects against injured spinal cord by inhibiting blood-spinal cord barrier disruption. J Neurotrauma 2022; 39:735-749. [PMID: 35171694 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2021.0338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
When the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) is disrupted after a spinal cord injury (SCI), several pathophysiological cascades occur, including inflammation and apoptotic cell death of neurons and oligodendrocytes, resulting in permanent neurological deficits. Transient receptor potential melastatin 7 (TRPM7) is involved in the pathological processes in many neuronal diseases, including traumatic brain injury, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, parkinsonism dementia, and Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, carvacrol (CAR), a TRPM7 inhibitor, is known to protect against SCI by reducing oxidative stress and inhibiting the endothelial nitric oxide synthase pathway. However, the functions of TRPM7 in the regulation of BSCB homeostasis after SCI have not been examined. Here, we demonstrated that TRPM7, a calcium-mediated non-selective divalent cation channel, plays a critical role after SCI in rats. Rats were contused at T9 and given CAR (50 mg/kg) via intraperitoneally immediately and 12 hours after SCI, and then given the same dose once a day for 7 days. TRPM7 was found to be up-regulated after SCI in both in vitro and in vivo studies, and it was expressed in blood vessels alongside neurons and oligodendrocytes. Additionally, CAR treatment suppressed BSCB disruption by inhibiting the loss of TJ proteins and preserved TJ integrity. CAR also reduced apoptotic cell death and improved functional recovery after SCI by preventing BSCB disruption caused by blood infiltration and inflammatory responses. Based on these findings, we propose that blocking the TRPM7 channel can inhibit the destruction of the BSCB and it is a potential target in therapeutic drug development for use in SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan S Park
- Kyung Hee University, 26723, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, Korea (the Republic of);
| | - Jee Youn Lee
- Kyung Hee University, 26723, Seoul, Korea (the Republic of);
| | - Hye Y Choi
- Kyung Hee University, 26723, Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center, Seoul, Korea (the Republic of);
| | - Tae Y Yune
- Kyung Hee University, 26723, Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center, Seoul, Korea (the Republic of);
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Romanelli P, Bieler L, Heimel P, Škokić S, Jakubecova D, Kreutzer C, Zaunmair P, Smolčić T, Benedetti B, Rohde E, Gimona M, Hercher D, Dobrivojević Radmilović M, Couillard-Despres S. Enhancing Functional Recovery Through Intralesional Application of Extracellular Vesicles in a Rat Model of Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 15:795008. [PMID: 35046776 PMCID: PMC8762366 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.795008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Local inflammation plays a pivotal role in the process of secondary damage after spinal cord injury. We recently reported that acute intravenous application of extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by human umbilical cord mesenchymal stromal cells dampens the induction of inflammatory processes following traumatic spinal cord injury. However, systemic application of EVs is associated with delayed delivery to the site of injury and the necessity for high doses to reach therapeutic levels locally. To resolve these two constraints, we injected EVs directly at the lesion site acutely after spinal cord injury. We report here that intralesional application of EVs resulted in a more robust improvement of motor recovery, assessed with the BBB score and sub-score, as compared to the intravenous delivery. Moreover, the intralesional application was more potent in reducing inflammation and scarring after spinal cord injury than intravenous administration. Hence, the development of EV-based therapy for spinal cord injury should aim at an early application of vesicles close to the lesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasquale Romanelli
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury & Tissue Regeneration Centre Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Innovacell AG, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Lara Bieler
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury & Tissue Regeneration Centre Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Patrick Heimel
- Core Facility Hard Tissue and Biomaterial Research, Karl Donath Laboratory, University Clinic of Dentistry, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Traumatology, The Research Center in Cooperation with AUVA, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
| | - Siniša Škokić
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Dominika Jakubecova
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury & Tissue Regeneration Centre Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Christina Kreutzer
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury & Tissue Regeneration Centre Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Pia Zaunmair
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury & Tissue Regeneration Centre Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Tomislav Smolčić
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Bruno Benedetti
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury & Tissue Regeneration Centre Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Eva Rohde
- GMP Unit, Spinal Cord Injury & Tissue Regeneration Centre Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, University Hospital, Salzburger Landeskliniken GesmbH (SALK) and Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Transfer Centre for Extracellular Vesicle Theralytic Technologies (EV-TT), Salzburg, Austria
| | - Mario Gimona
- GMP Unit, Spinal Cord Injury & Tissue Regeneration Centre Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Transfer Centre for Extracellular Vesicle Theralytic Technologies (EV-TT), Salzburg, Austria
- Research Program "Nanovesicular Therapies", Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - David Hercher
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Traumatology, The Research Center in Cooperation with AUVA, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marina Dobrivojević Radmilović
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Zagreb, Croatia
- Department of Histology and Embryology, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Sebastien Couillard-Despres
- Institute of Experimental Neuroregeneration, Spinal Cord Injury & Tissue Regeneration Centre Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
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Yu Z, Wu H, Wang Y. Phoenixin-14 Promotes the Recovery of Neurological Dysfunction After Spinal Cord Injury by Regulating Microglial Polarization via PTEN/Akt Signaling Pathway. Hum Exp Toxicol 2022; 41:9603271221111345. [PMID: 35968813 DOI: 10.1177/09603271221111345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a destructive event in central nervous system (CNS) with the hallmark of deficits in neuronal function. Phoenixin-14 (PNX-14) is a reproductive peptide that also has neuroprotective effects. However, the role of PNX-14 in SCI has not yet been studied. In this study, we firstly investigated the effects of PNX-14 on the recovery of neurological dysfunction and microglial polarization in a SCI mice model. We demonstrated that PNX-14 improved the recovery of neurological dysfunction with increased Basso Mouse Scale (BMS) scores, reduced lesion area volume and Evans blue (EB) dye extravasation. PNX-14 alleviated neuronal apoptosis and neuroinflammation in mice underwent SCI. In vitro co-culture assay proved that PNX-14 protected neurons injury in response to LPS- activated BV-2 cells. PNX-14 suppressed the LPS- induced microglia M1 phenotype polarization with decreased expression of M1-associated markers (CD16 and iNOS) and increased expression of M2-associated markers (CD206 and Arg1). PNX-14 also suppressed LPS- caused decrease in anti-inflammatory cytokines TGF-β, IL-10, and IL-13, as well increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in BV2 cells. PNX-14 treatment caused increased PTEN expression and decreased p-Akt expression in BV2 cells against LPS induction. While inhibition of PTEN by SF1670 reversed the effects of PNX-14 on LPS- induced phenotypic transition of BV2 cells. Taken together, we found that PNX-14 exerted protective effects on neurological dysfunction and inflammation in SCI mice through modulating microglial polarization via PTEN/Akt signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Yu
- Department of Orthopedics, Fuyong People's Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Hao Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shanxi Bethune Hospital Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Taiyuan, China
| | - Yonghong Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shanxi Bethune Hospital Shanxi Academy of Medical Sciences, Taiyuan, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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Pang QM, Chen SY, Fu SP, Zhou H, Zhang Q, Ao J, Luo XP, Zhang T. Regulatory Role of Mesenchymal Stem Cells on Secondary Inflammation in Spinal Cord Injury. J Inflamm Res 2022; 15:573-593. [PMID: 35115806 PMCID: PMC8802142 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s349572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Qi-Ming Pang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Si-Yu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Sheng-Ping Fu
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hui Zhou
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jun Ao
- Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Ping Luo
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence: Tao Zhang; Qian Zhang, Email ;
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Qiao X, Zhang W, Zhao W. Role of CXCL10 in Spinal Cord Injury. Int J Med Sci 2022; 19:2058-2070. [PMID: 36483597 PMCID: PMC9724238 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.76694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in acute inflammatory responses and secondary damages, including neuronal and glial cell death, axonal damage and demyelination, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) damage, eventually leading to neuronal dysfunction and other complications. C-X-C motif Chemokine Ligand 10 (CXCL10) is expressed after the injury, playing multiple roles in the development and progression of SCI. Moreover, the CXCL10 antagonist can restrict inflammatory immune responses and promote neuronal regeneration and functional recovery. In this review, we summarize the structure and biological functions of CXCL10, and the roles of the CXCL10 / CXCR3 axis in acute inflammatory responses, secondary damages, and complications during SCI, thus providing a potential theoretical basis by highlighting CXCL10 as a new potential drug target for the treatment of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Qiao
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China.,Department of Pathogen Biology, Guizhou Nursing Vocational College, Guiyang, China
| | - Weijiang Zhao
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China.,Cell Biology Department, Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, Jiangsu, China
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Inhibition of Bruton Tyrosine Kinase Reduces Neuroimmune Cascade and Promotes Recovery after Spinal Cord Injury. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 23:ijms23010355. [PMID: 35008785 PMCID: PMC8745213 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23010355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia/astrocyte and B cell neuroimmune responses are major contributors to the neurological deficits after traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK) activation mechanistically links these neuroimmune mechanisms. Our objective is to use Ibrutinib, an FDA-approved BTK inhibitor, to inhibit the neuroimmune cascade thereby improving locomotor recovery after SCI. Rat models of contusive SCI, Western blot, immunofluorescence staining imaging, flow cytometry analysis, histological staining, and behavioral assessment were used to evaluate BTK activity, neuroimmune cascades, and functional outcomes. Both BTK expression and phosphorylation were increased at the lesion site at 2, 7, 14, and 28 days after SCI. Ibrutinib treatment (6 mg/kg/day, IP, starting 3 h post-injury for 7 or 14 days) reduced BTK activation and total BTK levels, attenuated the injury-induced elevations in Iba1, GFAP, CD138, and IgG at 7 or 14 days post-injury without reduction in CD45RA B cells, improved locomotor function (BBB scores), and resulted in a significant reduction in lesion volume and significant improvement in tissue-sparing 11 weeks post-injury. These results indicate that Ibrutinib exhibits neuroprotective effects by blocking excessive neuroimmune responses through BTK-mediated microglia/astroglial activation and B cell/antibody response in rat models of SCI. These data identify BTK as a potential therapeutic target for SCI.
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Pang QM, Chen SY, Xu QJ, Fu SP, Yang YC, Zou WH, Zhang M, Liu J, Wan WH, Peng JC, Zhang T. Neuroinflammation and Scarring After Spinal Cord Injury: Therapeutic Roles of MSCs on Inflammation and Glial Scar. Front Immunol 2021; 12:751021. [PMID: 34925326 PMCID: PMC8674561 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.751021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Transected axons are unable to regenerate after spinal cord injury (SCI). Glial scar is thought to be responsible for this failure. Regulating the formation of glial scar post-SCI may contribute to axonal regrow. Over the past few decades, studies have found that the interaction between immune cells at the damaged site results in a robust and persistent inflammatory response. Current therapy strategies focus primarily on the inhibition of subacute and chronic neuroinflammation after the acute inflammatory response was executed. Growing evidences have documented that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) engraftment can be served as a promising cell therapy for SCI. Numerous studies have shown that MSCs transplantation can inhibit the excessive glial scar formation as well as inflammatory response, thereby facilitating the anatomical and functional recovery. Here, we will review the effects of inflammatory response and glial scar formation in spinal cord injury and repair. The role of MSCs in regulating neuroinflammation and glial scar formation after SCI will be reviewed as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi-Ming Pang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Si-Yu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Qi-Jing Xu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Sheng-Ping Fu
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Yi-Chun Yang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Wang-Hui Zou
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Juan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Wei-Hong Wan
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Jia-Chen Peng
- Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
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Kim GU, Sung SE, Kang KK, Choi JH, Lee S, Sung M, Yang SY, Kim SK, Kim YI, Lim JH, Seo MS, Lee GW. Therapeutic Potential of Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) and MSC-Derived Extracellular Vesicles for the Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413672. [PMID: 34948463 PMCID: PMC8703906 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a life-threatening condition that leads to permanent disability with partial or complete loss of motor, sensory, and autonomic functions. SCI is usually caused by initial mechanical insult, followed by a cascade of several neuroinflammation and structural changes. For ameliorating the neuroinflammatory cascades, MSC has been regarded as a therapeutic agent. The animal SCI research has demonstrated that MSC can be a valuable therapeutic agent with several growth factors and cytokines that may induce anti-inflammatory and regenerative effects. However, the therapeutic efficacy of MSCs in animal SCI models is inconsistent, and the optimal method of MSCs remains debatable. Moreover, there are several limitations to developing these therapeutic agents for humans. Therefore, identifying novel agents for regenerative medicine is necessary. Extracellular vesicles are a novel source for regenerative medicine; they possess nucleic acids, functional proteins, and bioactive lipids and perform various functions, including damaged tissue repair, immune response regulation, and reduction of inflammation. MSC-derived exosomes have advantages over MSCs, including small dimensions, low immunogenicity, and no need for additional procedures for culture expansion or delivery. Certain studies have demonstrated that MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, exhibit outstanding chondroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects. Therefore, we reviewed the principles and patho-mechanisms and summarized the research outcomes of MSCs and MSC-derived EVs for SCI, reported to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang-Un Kim
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Hanil General Hospital, 308 Uicheon-ro, Dobong-gu, Seoul 01450, Korea;
| | - Soo-Eun Sung
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea; (S.-E.S.); (K.-K.K.); (J.-H.C.); (S.L.); (M.S.)
| | - Kyung-Ku Kang
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea; (S.-E.S.); (K.-K.K.); (J.-H.C.); (S.L.); (M.S.)
| | - Joo-Hee Choi
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea; (S.-E.S.); (K.-K.K.); (J.-H.C.); (S.L.); (M.S.)
| | - Sijoon Lee
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea; (S.-E.S.); (K.-K.K.); (J.-H.C.); (S.L.); (M.S.)
| | - Minkyoung Sung
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea; (S.-E.S.); (K.-K.K.); (J.-H.C.); (S.L.); (M.S.)
| | - Seung Yun Yang
- Department of Biomaterials Science, Life and Industry Convergence Institute, Pusan National University, Miryang 50463, Korea;
| | - Seul-Ki Kim
- Efficacy Evaluation Team, Food Science R&D Center, KolmarBNH CO., LTD, 61Heolleungro 8-gil, Seocho-gu, Seoul 06800, Korea;
| | | | - Ju-Hyeon Lim
- New Drug Development Center, Osong Medical Innovation Foundation, Chungbuk 28160, Korea;
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Yeungnam University College of Medicine, Yeungnam University Medical Center, 170 Hyonchung-ro, Namgu, Daegu 42415, Korea
| | - Min-Soo Seo
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), Daegu 41061, Korea; (S.-E.S.); (K.-K.K.); (J.-H.C.); (S.L.); (M.S.)
- Correspondence: (M.-S.S.); (G.W.L.); Tel.: +82-53-7905727 (M.S.S.); +82-53-6203642 (G.W.L.)
| | - Gun Woo Lee
- Cellexobio, Co. Ltd., Daegu 42415, Korea;
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Yeungnam University College of Medicine, Yeungnam University Medical Center, 170 Hyonchung-ro, Namgu, Daegu 42415, Korea
- Correspondence: (M.-S.S.); (G.W.L.); Tel.: +82-53-7905727 (M.S.S.); +82-53-6203642 (G.W.L.)
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Lukacova N, Kisucka A, Kiss Bimbova K, Bacova M, Ileninova M, Kuruc T, Galik J. Glial-Neuronal Interactions in Pathogenesis and Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:13577. [PMID: 34948371 PMCID: PMC8708227 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) elicits an acute inflammatory response which comprises numerous cell populations. It is driven by the immediate response of macrophages and microglia, which triggers activation of genes responsible for the dysregulated microenvironment within the lesion site and in the spinal cord parenchyma immediately adjacent to the lesion. Recently published data indicate that microglia induces astrocyte activation and determines the fate of astrocytes. Conversely, astrocytes have the potency to trigger microglial activation and control their cellular functions. Here we review current information about the release of diverse signaling molecules (pro-inflammatory vs. anti-inflammatory) in individual cell phenotypes (microglia, astrocytes, blood inflammatory cells) in acute and subacute SCI stages, and how they contribute to delayed neuronal death in the surrounding spinal cord tissue which is spared and functional but reactive. In addition, temporal correlation in progressive degeneration of neurons and astrocytes and their functional interactions after SCI are discussed. Finally, the review highlights the time-dependent transformation of reactive microglia and astrocytes into their neuroprotective phenotypes (M2a, M2c and A2) which are crucial for spontaneous post-SCI locomotor recovery. We also provide suggestions on how to modulate the inflammation and discuss key therapeutic approaches leading to better functional outcome after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadezda Lukacova
- Institute of Neurobiology, Biomedical Research Centre, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Soltesovej 4–6, 040 01 Kosice, Slovakia; (A.K.); (K.K.B.); (M.B.); (M.I.); (T.K.); (J.G.)
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40
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Hellenbrand DJ, Quinn CM, Piper ZJ, Morehouse CN, Fixel JA, Hanna AS. Inflammation after spinal cord injury: a review of the critical timeline of signaling cues and cellular infiltration. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:284. [PMID: 34876174 PMCID: PMC8653609 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02337-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating neurological condition that results in a loss of motor and sensory function. Although extensive research to develop treatments for SCI has been performed, to date, none of these treatments have produced a meaningful amount of functional recovery after injury. The primary injury is caused by the initial trauma to the spinal cord and results in ischemia, oxidative damage, edema, and glutamate excitotoxicity. This process initiates a secondary injury cascade, which starts just a few hours post-injury and may continue for more than 6 months, leading to additional cell death and spinal cord damage. Inflammation after SCI is complex and driven by a diverse set of cells and signaling molecules. In this review, we utilize an extensive literature survey to develop the timeline of local immune cell and cytokine behavior after SCI in rodent models. We discuss the precise functional roles of several key cytokines and their effects on a variety of cell types involved in the secondary injury cascade. Furthermore, variations in the inflammatory response between rats and mice are highlighted. Since current SCI treatment options do not successfully initiate functional recovery or axonal regeneration, identifying the specific mechanisms attributed to secondary injury is critical. With a more thorough understanding of the complex SCI pathophysiology, effective therapeutic targets with realistic timelines for intervention may be established to successfully attenuate secondary damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Hellenbrand
- Department of Neurological Surgery, School of Medicine and Public Health (UWSMPH), University of Wisconsin, 600 Highland Ave, Madison, WI, 53792, USA
| | - Charles M Quinn
- Department of Neurological Surgery, School of Medicine and Public Health (UWSMPH), University of Wisconsin, 600 Highland Ave, Madison, WI, 53792, USA
| | - Zachariah J Piper
- Department of Neurological Surgery, School of Medicine and Public Health (UWSMPH), University of Wisconsin, 600 Highland Ave, Madison, WI, 53792, USA
| | - Carolyn N Morehouse
- Department of Neurological Surgery, School of Medicine and Public Health (UWSMPH), University of Wisconsin, 600 Highland Ave, Madison, WI, 53792, USA
| | - Jordyn A Fixel
- Department of Neurological Surgery, School of Medicine and Public Health (UWSMPH), University of Wisconsin, 600 Highland Ave, Madison, WI, 53792, USA
| | - Amgad S Hanna
- Department of Neurological Surgery, School of Medicine and Public Health (UWSMPH), University of Wisconsin, 600 Highland Ave, Madison, WI, 53792, USA.
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Zirak A, Soleimani M, Jameie SB, Abdollahifar MA, Fadaei Fathabadi F, Hassanzadeh S, Esmaeilzadeh E, Farjoo MH, Norouzian M. Related Fluoxetine and Methylprednisolone Changes of TNF-α and IL-6 Expression in The Hypothyroidism Rat Model of Spinal Cord Injury. CELL JOURNAL 2021; 23:763-771. [PMID: 34979066 PMCID: PMC8753107 DOI: 10.22074/cellj.2021.7459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Objective Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a serious clinical condition that leads to disability. Following primary injury, pro-
inflammatory cytokines play an important role in the subsequent secondary events. The thyroid hormone (TH) is known
as the modulator of inflammatory cytokines and acts as a neuroprotective agent. Methylprednisolone (MP) is used
for the early treatment of SCI. Fluoxetine (FLX), also is known as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), has
therapeutic potential in neurological disorders. The aim of the present study was to investigate the combined effects of
MP and FLX on SCI in the rat hypothyroidism (hypo) model. Materials and Methods In this experimental study, 48 male Wistar rats with hypothyroidism were randomly divided
into 6 groups (n=8/group): control (Hypo), Hypo+Surgical sham, Hypo+SCI, Hypo+SCI+MP, Hypo+SCI+FLX, and
Hypo+SCI+MP+FLX. SCI was created using an aneurysm clip and Hypothyroidism was induced by 6-Propyl-2-thiouracil
(PTU) at a dose of 10 mg/kg/day administered intraperitoneally. Following SCI induction, rats received MP and FLX
treatments via separate intraperitoneal injections at a dose of 30 and 10 mg/kg/day respectively on the surgery day
and FLX continued daily for 3 weeks. The expression levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6
(IL-6) were quantified by Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Western blotting. Myelination and glutathione
(GSH) levels were analyzed by Luxol Fast Blue (LFB) staining and ELISA respectively.
Results Following combined MP and FLX treatments, the expression levels of TNF-α and IL-6 significantly decreased
and GSH level considerably increased in the trial animals.
Conclusion Our results show the neuroprotective effects of MP and FLX with better results in Hypo+SCI+MP+FLX
group. Further study is required to identify the mechanisms involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atousa Zirak
- Department of Biology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Soleimani
- Department of Medical Basic Sciences, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Genetics Research Center, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Behnamedin Jameie
- Neuroscience Research Center (NRC), Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. .,Department of Anatomy, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Amin Abdollahifar
- Department of Biology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Fadaei Fathabadi
- Department of Biology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sajad Hassanzadeh
- Neuroscience Research Center (NRC), Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Skull Base Research Center, Five Senses Institute, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Mohammad Hadi Farjoo
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohsen Norouzian
- Department of Biology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Buzoianu-Anguiano V, Torres-Llacsa M, Doncel-Pérez E. Role of Aldynoglia Cells in Neuroinflammatory and Neuroimmune Responses after Spinal Cord Injury. Cells 2021; 10:2783. [PMID: 34685763 PMCID: PMC8534338 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Aldynoglia are growth-promoting cells with a morphology similar to radial glia and share properties and markers with astrocytes and Schwann cells. They are distributed in several locations throughout the adult central nervous system, where the cells of the aldynoglia interact and respond to the signals of the immune cells. After spinal cord injury (SCI), the functions of resident aldynoglia, identified as ependymocytes, tanycytes, and ependymal stem cells (EpSCs) of the spinal cord are crucial for the regeneration of spinal neural tissue. These glial cells facilitate axonal regrowth and remyelination of injured axons. Here, we review the influence of M1 or M2 macrophage/microglia subpopulations on the fate of EpSCs during neuroinflammation and immune responses in the acute, subacute, and chronic phases after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mabel Torres-Llacsa
- Servicio de Radiología, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, 45071 Toledo, Spain;
| | - Ernesto Doncel-Pérez
- Grupo de Química Neuro-Regenerativa, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, 45071 Toledo, Spain;
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Masterman E, Ahmed Z. Experimental Treatments for Oedema in Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Cells 2021; 10:cells10102682. [PMID: 34685662 PMCID: PMC8534777 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The incidence of spinal cord injury (SCI) is ever-growing, resulting in life-changing neurological deficits which can have devastating long-term impacts on a person’s quality of life. There is an unmet clinical need for a treatment which will prevent progression of the injury, allowing improved axonal regeneration and functional recovery to occur. The initial mechanical insult, followed by a cascade of secondary mechanisms, leads to the exacerbation and remodelling of the lesion site, thus inhibiting neurological recovery. Oedema rapidly accumulates following SCI and contributes to the detrimental pathophysiology and worsens functional outcomes. This study systematically reviewed the current experimental treatments being explored in the field of SCI, which specifically target oedema. Abiding by PRISMA guidelines and strict inclusion criteria, 14 studies were identified and analysed from three online databases (PubMed, Web of Science and EMBASE). As a result, we identified three key modalities which attenuate oedema: selective inhibition of the main water channel protein, aquaporin 4 (AQP4), modulation of inflammation and surgical interventions. Collectively, however, they all result in the downregulation of AQP4, which crucially leads to a reduction in oedema and improved functional outcomes. We concluded that trifluoperazine (TFP), a calmodulin kinase inhibitor which prevents the cell-surface localisation of AQP4, was the most efficacious treatment, significantly eliminating oedema within 7 days of administration. To date, this study is the most concise analysis of current experimental treatments for oedema, exposing its molecular mechanisms and assessing potential therapeutic pathways for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Masterman
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK;
| | - Zubair Ahmed
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK;
- Centre for Trauma Sciences Research, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- Surgical Reconstruction and Microbiology Research Centre, National Institute for Health Research, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham B15 2TH, UK
- Correspondence:
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Dai N, Tang C, Liu H, Huang S. Effect of electroacupuncture on inhibition of inflammatory response and oxidative stress through activating ApoE and Nrf2 in a mouse model of spinal cord injury. Brain Behav 2021; 11:e2328. [PMID: 34423582 PMCID: PMC8442587 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.2328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Electroacupuncture protects neurons and myelinated axons after spinal cord injury by mitigating the inflammatory response and oxidative stress, but how it exerts these effects is unclear. METHODS AND RESULTS Spinal cord injury was induced in C57BL/6 wild-type and apolipoprotein E (ApoE) knockout (ApoE-/- ) mice, followed by electroacupuncture or ApoE mimetic peptide COG112 treatment. Mice with spinal cord injury suffered loss of myelinated axons and hindlimb motor function through the detections of Basso mouse scale, histology, and transmission electron microscopy; electroacupuncture partially reversed these effects in wild-type mice but not in ApoE-/- mice. Combining exogenous ApoE administration with electroacupuncture significantly mitigated the effects of spinal cord injury in both mouse strains, and these effects were associated with up-regulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines and down-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines which were detected by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Combination treatment also reduced oxidative stress by up-regulating ApoE and Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway through the detections of immunofluorescence and western blot analysis. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that electroacupuncture protects neurons and myelinated axons following spinal cord injury through an ApoE-dependent mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ni Dai
- Traditional Chinese Medicine College, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chenglin Tang
- Traditional Chinese Medicine College, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Hui Liu
- Institute of Neuroscience, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Siqin Huang
- Traditional Chinese Medicine College, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
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45
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Otsuka T, Maeda Y, Kurose T, Nakagawa K, Mitsuhara T, Kawahara Y, Yuge L. Comparisons of Neurotrophic Effects of Mesenchymal Stem Cells Derived from Different Tissues on Chronic Spinal Cord Injury Rats. Stem Cells Dev 2021; 30:865-875. [PMID: 34148410 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2021.0070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-based therapies with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are considered as promising strategies for spinal cord injury (SCI). MSCs have unique characteristics due to differences in the derived tissues. However, relatively few studies have focused on differences in the therapeutic effects of MSCs derived from different tissues. In this study, the therapeutic effects of adipose tissue-derived MSCs, bone marrow-derived MSCs, and cranial bone-derived MSCs (cMSCs) on chronic SCI model rats were compared. MSCs were established from the collected adipose tissue, bone marrow, and cranial bone. Neurotrophic factor expression of each MSC type was analyzed by real-time PCR. SCI rats were established using the weight-drop method and transplanted intravenously with MSCs at 4 weeks after SCI. Hindlimb motor function was evaluated from before injury to 4 weeks after transplantation. Endogenous neurotrophic factor and neural repair factor expression in spinal cord (SC) tissue were examined by real-time PCR and western blot analyses. Although there were no differences in the expression levels of cell surface markers and multipotency, expression of Bdnf, Ngf, and Sort1 (Nt-3) was relatively higher in cMSCs. Transplantation of cMSCs improved motor function of chronic SCI model rats. Although there was no difference in the degree of engraftment of transplanted cells in the injured SC tissue, transplantation of cMSCs enhanced Bdnf, TrkB, and Gap-43 messenger RNA expression and synaptophysin protein expression in injured SC tissue. As compared with MSCs derived other tissues, cMSCs highly express many neurotrophic factors, which improved motor function in chronic SCI model rats by promoting endogenous neurotrophic and neural plasticity factors. These results demonstrate the efficacy of cMSCs in cell-based therapy for chronic SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Otsuka
- Division of Bio-Environmental Adaptation Sciences, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Yuyo Maeda
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Tomoyuki Kurose
- Division of Bio-Environmental Adaptation Sciences, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Kei Nakagawa
- Division of Bio-Environmental Adaptation Sciences, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Takafumi Mitsuhara
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | | | - Louis Yuge
- Division of Bio-Environmental Adaptation Sciences, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan.,Space Bio-Laboratories Co., Ltd., Hiroshima, Japan
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46
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Kasatkina LA, Rittchen S, Sturm EM. Neuroprotective and Immunomodulatory Action of the Endocannabinoid System under Neuroinflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115431. [PMID: 34063947 PMCID: PMC8196612 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Endocannabinoids (eCBs) are lipid-based retrograde messengers with a relatively short half-life that are produced endogenously and, upon binding to the primary cannabinoid receptors CB1/2, mediate multiple mechanisms of intercellular communication within the body. Endocannabinoid signaling is implicated in brain development, memory formation, learning, mood, anxiety, depression, feeding behavior, analgesia, and drug addiction. It is now recognized that the endocannabinoid system mediates not only neuronal communications but also governs the crosstalk between neurons, glia, and immune cells, and thus represents an important player within the neuroimmune interface. Generation of primary endocannabinoids is accompanied by the production of their congeners, the N-acylethanolamines (NAEs), which together with N-acylneurotransmitters, lipoamino acids and primary fatty acid amides comprise expanded endocannabinoid/endovanilloid signaling systems. Most of these compounds do not bind CB1/2, but signal via several other pathways involving the transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-α and non-cannabinoid G-protein coupled receptors (GPRs) to mediate anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and neuroprotective activities. In vivo generation of the cannabinoid compounds is triggered by physiological and pathological stimuli and, specifically in the brain, mediates fine regulation of synaptic strength, neuroprotection, and resolution of neuroinflammation. Here, we review the role of the endocannabinoid system in intrinsic neuroprotective mechanisms and its therapeutic potential for the treatment of neuroinflammation and associated synaptopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludmila A. Kasatkina
- Otto Loewi Research Center, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria; (L.A.K.); (S.R.)
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Sonja Rittchen
- Otto Loewi Research Center, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria; (L.A.K.); (S.R.)
| | - Eva M. Sturm
- Otto Loewi Research Center, Division of Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria; (L.A.K.); (S.R.)
- Correspondence:
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47
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Yao C, Cao X, Yu B. Revascularization After Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury. Front Physiol 2021; 12:631500. [PMID: 33995118 PMCID: PMC8119644 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.631500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is a complex pathological process. The initial mechanical damage is followed by a progressive secondary injury cascade. The injury ruptures the local microvasculature and disturbs blood-spinal cord barriers, exacerbating inflammation and tissue damage. Although endogenous angiogenesis is triggered, the new vessels are insufficient and often fail to function normally. Numerous blood vessel interventions, such as proangiogenic factor administration, gene modulation, cell transplantation, biomaterial implantation, and physical stimulation, have been applied as SCI treatments. Here, we briefly describe alterations and effects of the vascular system on local microenvironments after SCI. Therapies targeted at revascularization for SCI are also summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Yao
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Tissue Engineering Technology Products, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Xuemin Cao
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Tissue Engineering Technology Products, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Bin Yu
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Tissue Engineering Technology Products, Nantong University, Nantong, China
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48
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Blood Serum Cytokines in Patients with Subacute Spinal Cord Injury: A Pilot Study to Search for Biomarkers of Injury Severity. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11030322. [PMID: 33806460 PMCID: PMC8000354 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11030322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background. Despite considerable interest in the search for a spinal cord injury (SCI) therapy, there is a critical need to develop a panel of diagnostic biomarkers to determine injury severity. In this regard, there is a requirement for continuing research into the fundamental processes of neuroinflammatory and autoimmune reactions in SCI, identifying changes in the expression of cytokines. Methods. In this pilot study, an extended multiplex analysis of the cytokine profiles in the serum of patients at 2 weeks post-SCI (n = 28) was carried out, together with an additional assessment of neuron-specific enolase (NSE) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. A total of 16 uninjured subjects were enrolled as controls. Results. The data obtained showed a large elevation of IFNγ (>52 fold), CCL27 (>13 fold), and CCL26 (>8 fold) 2 weeks after SCI. The levels of cytokines CXCL5, CCL11, CXCL11, IL10, TNFα, and MIF were different between patients with baseline American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale (AIS) grades of A or B, whilst IL2 (>2 fold) and MIP-3a (>6 fold) were significantly expressed in the cervical and thoracic regions. There was a trend towards increasing levels of NSE. However, the difference in NSE was lost when the patient set was segregated based on AIS group. Conclusions. Our pilot research demonstrates that serum concentrations of cytokines can be used as an affordable and rapid detection tool to accurately stratify SCI severity in patients.
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Zhong K, Li Y, Tang Y, Yu G, Zilundu PLM, Wang Y, Zhou Y, Xu X, Fu R, Zhou L. Cytokine profile and glial activation following brachial plexus roots avulsion injury in mice. J Neuroimmunol 2021; 353:577517. [PMID: 33582398 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2021.577517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation and tissue infiltration by various immune cells play a significant role in the pathogenesis of neurons suffering the central nervous systems diseases. Although brachial plexus root avulsion (BPRA) leads to dramatic motoneurons (MNs) death and permanent loss of function, however, the knowledge gap on cytokines and glial reaction in the spinal cord injury is still existing. The current study is sought to investigate the alteration of specific cytokine expression patterns of the BPRA injured spinal cord during an acute and subacute period. The cytokine assay, transmission electron microscopy, and histological staining were utilized to assess cytokine network alteration, ultrastructure morphology, and glial activation and MNs loss within two weeks post-injury on a mouse unilateral BPRA model. The BPRA injury caused a progressively spinal MNs loss, reduced the alpha-(α) MNs synaptic inputs, whereas enhanced glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule-1 (IBA-1), F4/80 expression in ipsilateral but not the contralateral spinal segments. Additionally, cytokine assays revealed BPRA significantly altered the level of CXCL1, ICAM1, IP10, MCP-5, MIP1-α, and CD93. Notably, the elevated MIP1-α was mainly expressed in the injured spinal MNs. While the re-distribution of CD93 expression, from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, occasionally occurred at neurons of the ipsilateral spinal segment after injury. Overall, these findings suggest that the inflammatory cytokines associated with glial cell activation might contribute to the pathophysiology of the MNs death caused by nerve roots injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Zhong
- Department of Anatomy, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, China.
| | - Yingqin Li
- Department of Radiology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, Guangdong 51900, China.
| | - Ying Tang
- Department of Anatomy, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, China.
| | - Guangyin Yu
- Department of Anatomy, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, China.
| | - Prince Last Mudenda Zilundu
- Department of Anatomy, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, China
| | - Yaqiong Wang
- Department of Electron Microscope, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510089, China.
| | - Yingying Zhou
- Department of Anatomy, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, China.
| | - Xiaoying Xu
- Department of Anatomy, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, China.
| | - Rao Fu
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510089, China.
| | - Lihua Zhou
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510089, China.
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50
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Liu WZ, Ma ZJ, Li JR, Kang XW. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes: therapeutic opportunities and challenges for spinal cord injury. Stem Cell Res Ther 2021; 12:102. [PMID: 33536064 PMCID: PMC7860030 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-021-02153-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) often leads to serious motor and sensory dysfunction of the limbs below the injured segment. SCI not only results in physical and psychological harm to patients but can also cause a huge economic burden on their families and society. As there is no effective treatment method, the prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of patients with SCI have become urgent problems to be solved. In recent years, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have attracted more attention in the treatment of SCI. Although MSC therapy can reduce injured volume and promote axonal regeneration, its application is limited by tumorigenicity, a low survival rate, and immune rejection. Accumulating literature shows that exosomes have great potential in the treatment of SCI. In this review, we summarize the existing MSC-derived exosome studies on SCI and discuss the advantages and challenges of treating SCI based on exosomes derived from MSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Zhao Liu
- The Second Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730030, Gansu, China
- Department of Orthopedics, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, No.82 Cuiyingmen Street, Lanzhou, 730030, Gansu, China
| | - Zhan-Jun Ma
- The Second Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730030, Gansu, China
- Department of Orthopedics, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, No.82 Cuiyingmen Street, Lanzhou, 730030, Gansu, China
| | - Jie-Ru Li
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, Gansu, China
| | - Xue-Wen Kang
- The Second Clinical Medical College, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730030, Gansu, China.
- Department of Orthopedics, Lanzhou University Second Hospital, No.82 Cuiyingmen Street, Lanzhou, 730030, Gansu, China.
- The International Cooperation Base of Gansu Province for the Pain Research in Spinal Disorders, Lanzhou, 730000, Gansu, China.
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