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Anuradha U, Kumar A, Singh RK. The clinical correlation of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory biomarkers with Alzheimer disease: a meta-analysis. Neurol Sci 2021; 43:285-298. [PMID: 34032945 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-021-05343-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Numerous studies have indicated the role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the exact role of inflammatory markers in AD is still unclear. OBJECTIVE The main objective of the current study was to find out the association between the level of inflammatory markers and AD. MATERIAL AND METHODS The relevant articles have been extracted from PubMed as per the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the study. The mean value with standard deviation and number of participants in AD and control groups were extracted from relevant articles. The inverse variance was used as a statistical method and standard mean difference (SMD) as effect measure with 95% C.I. The random effect model was used and all analyses were done using Rev. Man 5.0. RESULTS A total of 38 articles have been found relevant and selected for analysis. The overall estimate results have shown that the level of IL-6, TGF-β1, and IL-1α were increased significantly in AD patients as compared to the control group among all other pro-inflammatory, inflammatory and anti-inflammatory mediators. CONCLUSION The findings of the current study suggest that IL-6, TGF-β1, and IL-1α may be a useful early marker in AD. However, further studies are required to confirm the exact utility of these inflammatory markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urati Anuradha
- Department of Regulatory Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER) Raebareli, (U.P), Lucknow, 226002, India
| | - Anoop Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences & Research University (DPSRU), New Delhi, 110017, India
| | - Rakesh Kumar Singh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER) Raebareli, (U.P), Bijnor-Sisendi Road, Sarojini Nagar, Near CRPF Base Camp, Lucknow, UP, 226002, India.
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2
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Guo H, Zhao Z, Zhang R, Chen P, Zhang X, Cheng F, Gou X. Monocytes in the Peripheral Clearance of Amyloid-β and Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2020; 68:1391-1400. [PMID: 30958361 DOI: 10.3233/jad-181177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Aging societies have high incidence rates of Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is diagnosed at later disease stages and has a poor prognosis, and effective drugs and treatments for AD are lacking. The molecular mechanism of AD is not clear, and current research focuses primarily on amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition and tau protein hyperphosphorylation. Aβ deposition is the most frequently hypothesized initiating factor of AD, and Aβ clearance during the pathogenesis of AD may be an optional strategy to suppress AD development. Monocytes play important roles in the peripheral clearance of Aβ. Therefore, the present review summarizes our current knowledge of the potential roles of infiltrating macrophages, circulating monocytes, and Kupffer cells in the peripheral clearance of Aβ in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huifang Guo
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Brain Disorders and School of Basic Medical Science, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Zhaohua Zhao
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Brain Disorders and School of Basic Medical Science, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Ruisan Zhang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Brain Disorders and School of Basic Medical Science, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Peng Chen
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Brain Disorders and School of Basic Medical Science, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xiaohua Zhang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Brain Disorders and School of Basic Medical Science, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China.,Institute of Basic and Translational Medicine, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Fan Cheng
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Brain Disorders and School of Basic Medical Science, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xingchun Gou
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Brain Disorders and School of Basic Medical Science, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China.,Institute of Basic and Translational Medicine, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
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3
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Acquarone E, Monacelli F, Borghi R, Nencioni A, Odetti P. Resistin: A reappraisal. Mech Ageing Dev 2019; 178:46-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mad.2019.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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King E, O'Brien JT, Donaghy P, Morris C, Barnett N, Olsen K, Martin-Ruiz C, Taylor JP, Thomas AJ. Peripheral inflammation in prodromal Alzheimer's and Lewy body dementias. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2018; 89:339-345. [PMID: 29248892 PMCID: PMC5869446 DOI: 10.1136/jnnp-2017-317134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES There is growing evidence for the role of systemic inflammation in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative diseases; however the systemic inflammatory profile in dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) has never before been investigated. This study aimed to characterise systemic inflammatory mediators in established DLB and AD, as well as in their prodromal, mild cognitive impairment (MCI) phases. METHODS We obtained plasma samples from patients with DLB (n=37), AD (n=20), MCI with DLB profile (n=38), MCI with AD profile (n=20) and healthy control subjects (n=20). The following inflammatory biomarkers were measured using Roche cobas c702 and Meso Scale Discovery V-Plex Plus: high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, interferon-gamma, interleukin (IL)-10, IL-12p70, IL-13, IL-1beta, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha. RESULTS We found significantly higher levels of IL-10, IL-1beta, IL-4 and IL-2 in both MCI groups (P<0.001), while there was no significant difference in inflammatory markers between dementia groups and controls. Furthermore, increased disease severity was associated with lower levels of IL-1beta, IL-2 and IL-4 (P<0.05). INTERPRETATION We have shown for the first time that in both DLB and AD, increased peripheral inflammation occurs early at the MCI disease stages. These data support a role for inflammation early in the disease process, and have important implications for the stage of disease where trials of anti-inflammatory medication should be focused.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor King
- Institute of Neuroscience, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - John Tiernan O'Brien
- Institute of Neuroscience, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Paul Donaghy
- Institute of Neuroscience, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Christopher Morris
- Institute of Neuroscience, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Nicola Barnett
- Institute of Neuroscience, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Kirsty Olsen
- Institute of Neuroscience, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Carmen Martin-Ruiz
- Institute of Neuroscience, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - John-Paul Taylor
- Institute of Neuroscience, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Alan J Thomas
- Institute of Neuroscience, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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5
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A blood-based biomarker panel indicates IL-10 and IL-12/23p40 are jointly associated as predictors of β-amyloid load in an AD cohort. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14057. [PMID: 29070909 PMCID: PMC5656630 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14020-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, characterised by extracellular amyloid deposition as plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles of tau protein. As no current clinical test can diagnose individuals at risk of developing AD, the aim of this project is to evaluate a blood-based biomarker panel to identify individuals who carry this risk. We analysed the levels of 22 biomarkers in clinically classified healthy controls (HC), mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer’s participants from the well characterised Australian Imaging, Biomarker and Lifestyle (AIBL) study of aging. High levels of IL-10 and IL-12/23p40 were significantly associated with amyloid deposition in HC, suggesting that these two biomarkers might be used to detect at risk individuals. Additionally, other biomarkers (Eotaxin-3, Leptin, PYY) exhibited altered levels in AD participants possessing the APOE ε4 allele. This suggests that the physiology of some potential biomarkers may be altered in AD due to the APOE ε4 allele, a major risk factor for AD. Taken together, these data highlight several potential biomarkers that can be used in a blood-based panel to allow earlier identification of individuals at risk of developing AD and/or early stage AD for which current therapies may be more beneficial.
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6
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Asselineau D, Benlhassan K, Arosio B, Mari D, Ferri E, Casati M, Gussago C, Tedone E, Annoni G, Mazzola P, Piette F, Belmin J, Pariel S, Bornand A, Beaudeux JL, Doulazmi M, Mariani J, Bray DH. Interleukin-10 Production in Response to Amyloid-β Differs between Slow and Fast Decliners in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2016; 46:837-42. [PMID: 26402623 DOI: 10.3233/jad-142832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We investigated IL-10 and IL-6 production in amyloid-β (Aβ) stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in twenty Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients with slow progression, eleven with fast progression, and twenty age-matched controls. Promoter polymorphisms in IL-10 (position -592, -819, -1082), IL-6 (-174), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) (-10, -25), interferon-γ (IFN-γ) (-874), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (-308) genes were analyzed. IL-10 production after Aβ stimulation was high in PBMCs from slow decliners and almost completely abrogated in fast decliners. Association between AA IFN-γ low-producing genotype and fast progression was demonstrated. Investigations in a larger sample will clarify these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Asselineau
- ImmunoClin Ltd, London, UK.,UPMC University Paris 06, UMR 8256 Biological Adaptation and Ageing (B2A) Team Brain Development, Repair and Aging (BDRA), Paris, France.,CNRS, UMR 8256 Biological Adaptation and Ageing (B2A) Team Brain Development, Repair and Aging (BDRA), Paris, France
| | | | - Beatrice Arosio
- Geriatric Unit, Department of Medical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Geriatric Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniela Mari
- Geriatric Unit, Department of Medical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Geriatric Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Evelyn Ferri
- Geriatric Unit, Department of Medical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Martina Casati
- Geriatric Unit, Department of Medical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Cristina Gussago
- Geriatric Unit, Department of Medical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Enzo Tedone
- Geriatric Unit, Department of Medical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Giorgio Annoni
- Geriatric Clinic, Department of Health Science, Milan Center for Neuroscience, University Study of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Mazzola
- Geriatric Clinic, Department of Health Science, Milan Center for Neuroscience, University Study of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Francois Piette
- AP-HP, DHU FAST GH Pitie-Salpêtrière-Charles Foix, Paris, France
| | - Joel Belmin
- AP-HP, DHU FAST GH Pitie-Salpêtrière-Charles Foix, Paris, France
| | - Sylvie Pariel
- AP-HP, DHU FAST GH Pitie-Salpêtrière-Charles Foix, Paris, France
| | - Anne Bornand
- AP-HP, DHU FAST GH Pitie-Salpêtrière-Charles Foix, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Louis Beaudeux
- UMR-S 1139 "Pathophysiology and pharmacotoxicology of human placenta", Faculty of Pharmacy, Paris Descartes, Paris, France.,Department of Medical Biochemistry, Necker Hospital, AP-HP, Paris, France
| | - Mohamed Doulazmi
- UPMC University Paris 06, UMR 8256 Biological Adaptation and Ageing (B2A) Team Brain Development, Repair and Aging (BDRA), Paris, France.,CNRS, UMR 8256 Biological Adaptation and Ageing (B2A) Team Brain Development, Repair and Aging (BDRA), Paris, France.,AP-HP, DHU FAST GH Pitie-Salpêtrière-Charles Foix, Paris, France
| | - Jean Mariani
- UPMC University Paris 06, UMR 8256 Biological Adaptation and Ageing (B2A) Team Brain Development, Repair and Aging (BDRA), Paris, France.,CNRS, UMR 8256 Biological Adaptation and Ageing (B2A) Team Brain Development, Repair and Aging (BDRA), Paris, France.,AP-HP, DHU FAST GH Pitie-Salpêtrière-Charles Foix, Paris, France
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7
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Chen A, Oakley AE, Monteiro M, Tuomela K, Allan LM, Mukaetova-Ladinska EB, O'Brien JT, Kalaria RN. Multiplex analyte assays to characterize different dementias: brain inflammatory cytokines in poststroke and other dementias. Neurobiol Aging 2015; 38:56-67. [PMID: 26827643 PMCID: PMC4759608 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2015.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Both the inflammatory potential and cognitive function decline during aging. The association between the repertoire of inflammatory biomarkers and cognitive decline is unclear. Inflammatory cytokines have been reported to be increased, decreased, or unchanged in the cerebrospinal fluid and sera of subjects with dementia. We assessed 112 postmortem brains from subjects diagnosed with poststroke dementia (PSD), vascular dementia, mixed dementia, and Alzheimer's disease (AD), comparing those to poststroke nondemented (PSND) subjects and age-matched controls. We analyzed 5 brain regions including the gray and white matter from the frontal and temporal lobes for a panel of cytokine and/or chemokine analytes using multiplex-array assays. Of the 37 analytes, 14 were under or near the detection limits, 7 were close to the lowest detection level, and 16 cytokines were within the linear range of the assay. We observed widely variable concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP) and serum amyloid A at the high end (1-150 ng/mg protein), whereas several of the interleukins (IL, interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor) at the low end (1-10 pg/mg). There were also regional variations; most notable being high concentrations of some cytokines (e.g., CRP and angiogenesis panel) in the frontal white matter. Overall, we found decreased concentrations of several cytokines, including IL-1 beta (p = 0.000), IL-6 (p = 0.000), IL-7 (p = 0.000), IL-8 (p = 0.000), IL-16 (p = 0.001), interferon-inducible protein-10 (0.044), serum amyloid A (p = 0.011), and a trend in IL-1 alpha (p = 0.084) across all dementia groups compared to nondemented controls. IL-6 and IL-8 were significantly lower in dementia subjects than in nondemented subjects in every region. In particular, lower levels of IL-6 and IL-8 were notable in the PSD compared to PSND subjects. Because these 2 stroke groups had comparable degree of vascular pathology, the lower production of IL-6 and IL-8 in PSD reaffirms a possible specific involvement of immunosenescence in dementia pathogenesis. In contrast, CRP was not altered between dementia and nondementia subjects or between PSD and PSND. Our study provides evidence not only for the feasibility of tracking cytokines in postmortem brain tissue but also suggests differentially impaired inflammatory mechanisms underlying dementia including AD. There was a diminished inflammatory response, possibly reflecting immunosenescence and cerebral atrophy, in all dementias. Strategies to enhance anti-inflammatory cytokines and boost the immune system of the brain may be beneficial for preventing cognitive dysfunction, especially after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiqing Chen
- Neurovascular Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing & Vitality, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Arthur E Oakley
- Neurovascular Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing & Vitality, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Maria Monteiro
- Neurovascular Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing & Vitality, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Katri Tuomela
- Neurovascular Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing & Vitality, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Louise M Allan
- Neurovascular Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing & Vitality, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Elizabeta B Mukaetova-Ladinska
- Neurovascular Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing & Vitality, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - John T O'Brien
- Neurovascular Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing & Vitality, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Raj N Kalaria
- Neurovascular Research Group, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing & Vitality, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK.
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8
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Condic M, Oberstein TJ, Herrmann M, Reimann MC, Kornhuber J, Maler JM, Spitzer P. N-truncation and pyroglutaminylation enhances the opsonizing capacity of Aβ-peptides and facilitates phagocytosis by macrophages and microglia. Brain Behav Immun 2014; 41:116-25. [PMID: 24876064 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2014.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2014] [Revised: 04/18/2014] [Accepted: 05/03/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal accumulations of amyloid-β (Aβ)-peptides are one of the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The precursor of the Aβ-peptides, the amyloid precursor protein (APP), is also found in peripheral blood cells, but its function in these cells remains elusive. We previously observed that mononuclear phagocytes release Aβ-peptides during activation and phagocytosis, suggesting a physiologic role in inflammatory processes. Here, we show that supplementing the media with soluble N-terminally truncated Aβ(2-40) and Aβ(2-42) as well as Aβ(1-42) induced the phagocytosis of polystyrene particles (PSPs) by primary human monocytes. If the PSPs were pre-incubated with Aβ-peptides, phagocytosis was induced by all tested Aβ-peptide species. N-terminally truncated Aβ(x-42) induced the phagocytosis of PSPs significantly more effectively than did Aβ(x-40). Similarly, the phagocytosis of Escherichia coli by GM-CSF- and M-CSF-elicited macrophages as well as microglia was particularly facilitated by pre-incubation with N-terminally truncated Aβ(x-42). The proinflammatory polarization of monocytes was indicated by the reduced MSRI expression and IL-10 secretion after phagocytosis of PSPs coated with Aβ(1-42), Aβ(2-42) and Aβ(3p-42). Polarization of the macrophages by GM-CSF reduced the phagocytic activity, but it did not affect the capabilities of Aβ-peptides to opsonize prey. Taken together, Aβ-peptides support phagocytosis as soluble factors and act as opsonins. Differential effects among the Aβ-peptide variants point to distinct mechanisms of interaction among monocytes/macrophages, prey and Aβ-peptides. A proinflammatory polarization induced by the phagocytosis of Aβ-peptide coated particles may provide a model for the chronic inflammatory reaction and sustained plaque deposition in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateja Condic
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage 6, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Timo Jan Oberstein
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage 6, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Martin Herrmann
- Department of Medicine III, Institute for Clinical Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Gluecksstraße 4a, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Mareike Carola Reimann
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage 6, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Johannes Kornhuber
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage 6, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Juan Manuel Maler
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage 6, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Philipp Spitzer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage 6, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany.
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Koehler NKU, Stransky E, Shing M, Gaertner S, Meyer M, Schreitmüller B, Leyhe T, Laske C, Maetzler W, Kahle P, Celej MS, Jovin TM, Fallgatter AJ, Batra A, Buchkremer G, Schott K, Richartz-Salzburger E. Altered serum IgG levels to α-synuclein in dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer's disease. PLoS One 2013; 8:e64649. [PMID: 23741358 PMCID: PMC3669378 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0064649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural self-reactive antibodies in the peripheral blood may play a considerable role in the control of potentially toxic proteins that may otherwise accumulate in the aging brain. The significance of serum antibodies reactive against α-synuclein is not well known. We explored serum IgG levels to monomeric α-synuclein in dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) with a novel and validated highly sensitive ELISA assay. Antibody levels revealed stark differences in patients compared to healthy subjects and were dependent on diagnosis, disease duration and age. Anti-α-synuclein IgG levels were increased in both patient groups, but in early DLB to a much greater extent than in AD. Increased antibody levels were most evident in younger patients, while with advanced age relatively low levels were observed, similar to healthy individuals, exhibiting stable antibody levels independent of age. Our data show the presence of differentially altered IgG levels against α-synuclein in DLB and AD, which may relate to a disturbed α-synuclein homeostasis triggered by the disease process. These observations may foster the development of novel, possibly preclinical biomarkers and immunotherapeutic strategies that target α-synuclein in neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas K U Koehler
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Eberhard-Karls-University, Tübingen, Germany.
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10
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Cascella R, Conti S, Tatini F, Evangelisti E, Scartabelli T, Casamenti F, Wilson MR, Chiti F, Cecchi C. Extracellular chaperones prevent Aβ42-induced toxicity in rat brains. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2013; 1832:1217-26. [PMID: 23602994 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2013.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Revised: 03/12/2013] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterised by cognitive decline, formation of the extracellular amyloid β (Aβ42) plaques, neuronal and synapse loss, and activated microglia and astrocytes. Extracellular chaperones, which are known to inhibit amyloid fibril formation and promote clearance of misfolded aggregates, have recently been shown to reduce efficiently the toxicity of HypF-N misfolded oligomers to immortalised cell lines, by binding and clustering them into large species. However, the role of extracellular chaperones on Aβ oligomer toxicity remains unclear, with reports often appearing contradictory. In this study we microinjected into the hippocampus of rat brains Aβ42 oligomers pre-incubated for 1h with two extracellular chaperones, namely clusterin and α2-macroglobulin. The chaperones were found to prevent Aβ42-induced learning and memory impairments, as assessed by the Morris Water Maze test, and reduce Aβ42-induced glia inflammation and neuronal degeneration in rat brains, as probed by fluorescent immunohistochemical analyses. Moreover, the chaperones were able to prevent Aβ42 colocalisation with PSD-95 at post-synaptic terminals of rat primary neurons, suppressing oligomer cytotoxicity. All such effects were not effective by adding pre-formed oligomers and chaperones without preincubation. Molecular chaperones have therefore the potential to prevent the early symptoms of AD, not just by inhibiting Aβ42 aggregation, as previously demonstrated, but also by suppressing the toxicity of Aβ42 oligomers after they are formed. These findings elect them as novel neuroprotectors against amyloid-induced injury and excellent candidates for the design of therapeutic strategies against AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Cascella
- Department of Biomedical Experimental and Clinical Sciences, University of Florence, V.le GB Morgagni 50, 50134, Italy
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11
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Kuyumcu ME, Yesil Y, Oztürk ZA, Kizilarslanoğlu C, Etgül S, Halil M, Ulger Z, Cankurtaran M, Arıoğul S. The evaluation of neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio in Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2013; 34:69-74. [PMID: 22922667 DOI: 10.1159/000341583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIM There is growing consensus in the literature that inflammation plays a significant role in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The blood neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) is a new, inexpensive and easily applicable marker of inflammation. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between NLR, as an inflammatory biomarker, and AD. METHODS 241 AD patients and 175 patients with normal cognitive function were evaluated in this study. RESULTS The mean ± SD NLR of AD patients was significantly higher than that of patients with normal cognitive function (3.21 ± 1.35 vs. 2.07 ± 0.74, p < 0.001, respectively). Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis suggested that the optimum NLR cutoff point for AD was 2.48 with 69.29% sensitivity, 79.43% specificity, 82.30% positive predictive values and 65.30% negative predictive values. Logistic regression analysis showed that elevated NLR (OR: 4.774, 95% CI: 2.821-8.076, p < 0.001) was an independent variable for predicting AD. CONCLUSION Elderly people with AD have higher NLR than healthy controls. Elevated NLR levels are usually considered as an inflammatory marker. The results of this study suggested that inflammation plays a role in the pathogenesis of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehmet Emin Kuyumcu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, Hacettepe University, Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey.
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Jóźwik A, Landowski J, Bidzan L, Fülop T, Bryl E, Witkowski JM. Beta-amyloid peptides enhance the proliferative response of activated CD4CD28 lymphocytes from Alzheimer disease patients and from healthy elderly. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33276. [PMID: 22428008 PMCID: PMC3299766 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2011] [Accepted: 02/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most frequent form of dementia among elderly. Despite the vast amount of literature on non-specific immune mechanisms in AD there is still little information about the potential antigen-specific immune response in this pathology. It is known that early stages of AD include β-amyloid (Aβ)- reactive antibodies production and inflammatory response. Despite some evidence gathered proving cellular immune response background in AD pathology, the specific reactions of CD4+ and CD8+ cells remain unknown as the previous investigations yielded conflicting results. Here we investigated the CD4+CD28+ population of human peripheral blood T cells and showed that soluble β-amyloids alone were unable to stimulate these cells to proliferate significantly, resulting only in minor, probably antigen-specific, proliferative response. On the other hand, the exposure of in vitro pre-stimulated lymphocytes to soluble Aβ peptides significantly enhanced the proliferative response of these cells which had also lead to increased levels of TNF, IL-10 and IL-6. We also proved that Aβ peptide-enhanced proliferative response of CD4+CD28+ cells is autonomous and independent from disease status while being associated with the initial, ex vivo activation status of the CD4+ cells. In conclusion, we suggest that the effect of Aβ peptides on the immune system of AD patients does not depend on the specific reactivity to Aβ epitope(s), but is rather a consequence of an unspecific modulation of the cell cycle dynamics and cytokine production by T cells, occurring simultaneously in a huge proportion of Aβ peptide-exposed T lymphocytes and affecting the immune system performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Jóźwik
- Department of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Jerzy Landowski
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurotic Disorders, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Leszek Bidzan
- Department of Developmental Psychiatry, Psychotic Disorders, and Geriatric Psychiatry, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Tamas Fülop
- Immunology Program, Geriatric Division, Faculty of Medicine, Research Center on Aging, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
| | - Ewa Bryl
- Department of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Jacek M. Witkowski
- Department of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
- * E-mail:
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Choi J, Lee HW, Suk K. Increased plasma levels of lipocalin 2 in mild cognitive impairment. J Neurol Sci 2011; 305:28-33. [PMID: 21463871 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2011.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2010] [Revised: 02/24/2011] [Accepted: 03/10/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by an irreversible cognitive decline and neuronal loss associated with neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a prodromal stage of AD and is associated with memory loss and a high risk of developing AD. Lipocalin 2 (LCN2) is an acute phase protein. Our previous studies have shown that exposure to inflammatory stimuli resulted in elevated LCN2 levels in brain microglia and astrocytes implicating LCN2 in brain inflammation. Therefore, we hypothesize that there may be a significant change in the plasma LCN2 levels in patients with MCI and AD when compared to healthy control subjects. METHODS Forty-one patients with MCI, 62 patients with AD and 38 healthy elderly control subjects were recruited for this study. They were given a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests including a mini-mental status examination (MMSE) and clinical dementia rating (CDR). A variety of clinical information was collected from the semi-structured questionnaire administered. The LCN2 levels were measured using a specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in the plasma, which had been collected early in the morning after overnight fasting. RESULTS The LCN2 levels were significantly higher in MCI patients compared to the healthy control subjects and AD patients [control vs. MCI (p=0.005); MCI vs. AD (p=0.009)]. There was a significant negative correlation between the LCN2 levels and CDR scores (r=-0.245, p=0.014), and there was a positive correlation between the LCN2 levels and MMSE scores (r=0.317, p=0.001) among all of the MCI and AD patients. CONCLUSION MCI represents a prodromal stage of AD, and inflammation occurs as one of the earliest pathological events in AD. Thus, increased plasma LCN2 levels during MCI could be helpful in predicting the progression from MCI to AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihye Choi
- Department of Pharmacology, Brain Science and Engineering Institute, CMRI, Kyungpook National University School of Medicine, Daegu, Republic of Korea
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Richartz-Salzburger E, Stransky E, Laske C, Köhler N. [Premature immunosenescence: a pathogenetic factor in Alzheimer's disease?]. DER NERVENARZT 2010; 81:837-43. [PMID: 20386875 DOI: 10.1007/s00115-009-2918-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
While the familial form of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is known to be entirely inherited, the etiopathogenesis of the most common late-onset form of Alzheimer's disease still remains unresolved. Among various factors, aging seems to be one of the most prominent risk factors. Moreover, a large body of evidence points to the contribution of immunological alterations in AD. The involvement of inflammatory factors in the etiopathology has been widely discussed. Moreover, an impairment of certain immune responses in AD has been observed. Presumably, premature immunosenescence may lead to inadequate immune reactions. Against this background, the development of different immunotherapeutic strategies seems to be a promising challenge for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Richartz-Salzburger
- Universitätsklinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Tübingen, Tübingen, Deutschland.
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Swardfager W, Lanctôt K, Rothenburg L, Wong A, Cappell J, Herrmann N. A meta-analysis of cytokines in Alzheimer's disease. Biol Psychiatry 2010; 68:930-41. [PMID: 20692646 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 669] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2010] [Revised: 06/03/2010] [Accepted: 06/08/2010] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studies suggest that inflammation is involved in the neurodegenerative cascade leading to Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology and symptoms. This study sought to quantitatively summarize the clinical cytokine data. METHODS Original English language peer-reviewed studies measuring cytokine concentrations in AD and healthy control subjects were included. Mean (± standard deviation) cytokine concentrations for AD and control subjects were extracted. RESULTS Forty studies measuring peripheral blood cytokine concentrations and 14 measuring cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cytokine concentrations were included. In peripheral blood, there were significantly higher concentrations (weighted mean difference [95% confidence interval]) of interleukin (IL)-6 (2.86 [1.68, 4.04] pg/mL, p < .00001, N[AD/control subjects] = 985/680, 14 studies), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α (3.25 [.76, 5.74] pg/mL, p = .01, N = 680/447, 14 studies), IL-1β (.55 [.32, .78] pg/mL, p < .00001, N = 574/370, 10 studies), transforming growth factor (TGF)-β (67.23 [28.62, 105.83] pg/mL, p = .0006, N = 190/158, 5 studies), IL-12 (7.60 [5.58, 9.62] pg/mL, p < .00001, N = 148/106, 5 studies), and IL-18 (15.82 [1.98, 29.66] pg/mL, p = .03, N = 131/94, 4 studies) but not of IL-4, IL-8, IL-10, interferon-γ, or C-reactive protein in AD subjects compared with control subjects. There were significantly higher concentrations of TGF-β (7.81 [2.27, 13.35] pg/mL, p =.006, N = 113/114, 5 studies) but not IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β in the CSF of AD subjects compared with control subjects. CONCLUSIONS These results strengthen the clinical evidence that AD is accompanied by an inflammatory response, particularly higher peripheral concentrations of IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, TGF-β, IL-12 and IL-18 and higher CSF concentrations of TGF-β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Swardfager
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Higuchi M, Hatta K, Honma T, Hitomi YH, Kambayashi Y, Hibino Y, Matsuzaki I, Sasahara S, Nakamura H. Association between altered systemic inflammatory interleukin-1beta and natural killer cell activity and subsequently agitation in patients with Alzheimer disease. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2010; 25:604-11. [PMID: 19728317 DOI: 10.1002/gps.2381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly and is frequently accompanied by emotional disorder, including agitation. Although evidence of neuroendocrine immune and inflammatory functions during emotional changes has been accumulated, the pathogenic mechanisms in the development of agitation accompanied by AD remain to be elucidated. METHODS To clarify the involvement of neuroendocrine and immune and inflammatory systems in agitation in AD, we examined agitation levels, circadian rhythms of behavior, cortisol, interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), and natural killer cell activity (NKCA) in controls without dementia and 16 AD patients who were recognized to be easily agitated in their nursing homes. These behavioral and blood indicators were assessed according to the progress of the stage of agitation in 16 AD patients (stable, pre-agitation, and agitation stages). RESULTS Elevations in night behavior and blood cortisol, IL-1beta and an reduced blood NKCA level in the evening were observed not only in the agitation stage, but also when stable in AD patients as compared to the control. Increased IL-1beta and decreased NKCA occurred in both the morning and evening in pre-agitation and agitation stages in AD. CONCLUSIONS The increased IL-1beta and decreased NKCA with the progress of agitation in AD suggest that inflammation produces agitation and aggravates AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Higuchi
- Department of Environmental and Preventive Medicine, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa University, Japan
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Mulugeta E, Molina-Holgado F, Elliott MS, Hortobagyi T, Perry R, Kalaria RN, Ballard CG, Francis PT. Inflammatory mediators in the frontal lobe of patients with mixed and vascular dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2008; 25:278-86. [PMID: 18303264 DOI: 10.1159/000118633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/05/2007] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular dementia (VaD) accounts for about 20% of all dementias, and vascular risk is a key factor in more than 40% of people with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Little is known about inflammatory processes in the brains of these individuals. We have examined inflammatory mediators (interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-1alpha, IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor alpha) and chemokines (macrophage inflammatory protein 1, monocyte chemo-attractant protein (MCP)-1 and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor) in brain homogenates from grey and white matter of the frontal cortex (Brodmann area 9) from patients with VaD (n = 11), those with concurrent VaD and AD (mixed dementia; n = 8) and from age-matched controls (n = 13) using ELISA assays. We found a dramatic reduction of MCP-1 levels in the grey matter in VaD and mixed dementia in comparison to controls (55 and 66%, respectively). IL-6 decreases were also observed in the grey matter of VaD and mixed dementia (72 and 71%, respectively), with a more modest decrease (30%) in the white matter of patients with VaD or mixed dementia. In the first study to examine the status of inflammatory mediators in a brain region severely affected by white-matter lesions, our findings highlight - in contrast to previous reports in AD - that patients at the later stage of VaD or mixed dementia have a significantly attenuated neuro-inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ezra Mulugeta
- Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
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Magaki S, Yellon SM, Mueller C, Kirsch WM. Immunophenotypes in the circulation of patients with mild cognitive impairment. J Psychiatr Res 2008; 42:240-6. [PMID: 17320906 PMCID: PMC2167624 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2006] [Revised: 01/04/2007] [Accepted: 01/10/2007] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Alterations in the peripheral immune system are associated with dementia and the neuropathology of Alzheimer's disease, but have yet to be studied early in the disease process. To test the hypothesis that the balance of immune cell phenotypes is disrupted in the early progression of memory deterioration, patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and healthy elderly controls were examined for the distribution of subpopulations of leukocytes (lymphocytes, granulocytes, and monocytes) and lymphocyte subtypes (helper/inducer and suppressor/cytotoxic T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes) in blood. MCI subjects had a significantly higher percentage of total lymphocytes and a lower percentage of granulocytes compared to elderly controls. Furthermore, the expression of cell surface amyloid precursor protein (APP) and intracellular amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta) in lymphocytes and monocytes were determined. We found lymphocyte APP expression to be significantly increased in MCI subjects compared to controls. Our data indicate that changes in immunological parameters may be detected early in MCI, and an alteration of the immune response may precede clinical AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shino Magaki
- Center for Neurosurgery Research, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92350
| | - Steven M. Yellon
- Center for Perinatal Biology, Department of Physiology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92350
| | - Claudius Mueller
- Center for Neurosurgery Research, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92350
| | - Wolff M. Kirsch
- Center for Neurosurgery Research, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92350
- *CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: Wolff M. Kirsch, M.D., , phone: 909-558-7070, fax: 909-558-0472, address: Coleman Pavilion, Suite 11113, 11175 Campus Street, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92350
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Ezoulin M, Liu Z, Dutertre-Catella H, Wu G, Dong C, Heymans F, Ombetta J, Rat P, Massicot F. A new acetylcholinesterase inhibitor with anti-PAF activity modulates oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory mediators release in stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. Comparison with tacrine. Int Immunopharmacol 2007; 7:1685-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2007.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2007] [Revised: 08/28/2007] [Accepted: 08/30/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Guerreiro RJ, Santana I, Brás JM, Santiago B, Paiva A, Oliveira C. Peripheral inflammatory cytokines as biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment. NEURODEGENER DIS 2007; 4:406-12. [PMID: 17934323 DOI: 10.1159/000107700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2006] [Accepted: 01/24/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several lines of evidence in the literature have shown that inflammation is involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the results from the evaluation of serum inflammatory markers in AD patients have been controversial. OBJECTIVE To determine if any differences exist in the monocytic secretion pattern of IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-12 and TNF-alpha from mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and AD patients, when compared with healthy age-matched controls. METHODS To evaluate the percentage of peripheral monocytes secreting IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-12 and TNF-alpha along with the relative levels of these proteins, a cytofluorimetric analysis was conducted under basal conditions and after lipopolysaccharide-induced cell activation. RESULTS We found, in AD and MCI patients, a significant raise in the percentage of monocytes producing the studied cytokines (under basal conditions and after the exposure to an inflammatory stimulus), as well as a decreased competence of these cells to respond to inflammatory challenges, when compared with controls. CONCLUSIONS These results agree with a persistent inflammatory status in AD, reinforcing the hypothesis of a progressive impairment of the immune response in this disorder and suggesting that monocytes may be good targets to study the progression from MCI to AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita João Guerreiro
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal
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Magaki S, Mueller C, Dickson C, Kirsch W. Increased production of inflammatory cytokines in mild cognitive impairment. Exp Gerontol 2006; 42:233-40. [PMID: 17085001 PMCID: PMC1868444 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2006.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2006] [Revised: 09/08/2006] [Accepted: 09/22/2006] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies indicate that chronic inflammation plays a pathogenic role in both the central nervous system (CNS) and periphery in Alzheimer's disease (AD). We have screened for cytokines differentially produced by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from subjects with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and mild AD subjects who had progressed from MCI using a commercially available cytokine array. Following determination of expressed cytokines, we quantified levels of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-6, and IL-8, and the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 using flow cytometry. We have found a significant increase in the levels of IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10 produced by PBMCs stimulated for 24 h with phytohemagglutinin (PHA) in MCI subjects compared to healthy elderly controls. However, in PBMCs stimulated for 48 h with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), lower TNF-alpha/IL-10, IL-6/IL-10, and IL-8/IL-10 ratios were seen in MCI subjects. There were no differences in plasma levels of IL-8 between aged controls, MCI, and mild AD, and the levels of circulating IL-6 and IL-10 were below detection limits. Our data indicate that changes in cytokine production by PBMCs may be detected early in MCI, and an alteration of the immune response may precede clinical AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shino Magaki
- Center for Neurosurgery Research, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
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