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Huang P, Narendran S, Pereira F, Fukuda S, Nagasaka Y, Apicella I, Yerramothu P, Marion KM, Cai X, Sadda SR, Gelfand BD, Ambati J. Subretinal injection in mice to study retinal physiology and disease. Nat Protoc 2022; 17:1468-1485. [PMID: 35418688 PMCID: PMC11146522 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-022-00689-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Subretinal injection (SRI) is a widely used technique in retinal research and can be used to deliver nucleic acids, small molecules, macromolecules, viruses, cells or biomaterials such as nanobeads. Here we describe how to undertake SRI of mice. This protocol was adapted from a technique initially described for larger animals. Although SRI is a common procedure in eye research laboratories, there is no published guidance on the best practices for determining what constitutes a 'successful' SRI. Optimal injections are required for reproducibility of the procedure and, when carried out suboptimally, can lead to erroneous conclusions. To address this issue, we propose a standardized protocol for SRI with 'procedure success' defined by follow-up examination of the retina and the retinal pigmented epithelium rather than solely via intraoperative endpoints. This protocol takes 7-14 d to complete, depending on the reagent delivered. We have found, by instituting a standardized training program, that trained ophthalmologists achieve reliable proficiency in this technique after ~350 practice injections. This technique can be used to gain insights into retinal physiology and disease pathogenesis and to test the efficacy of experimental compounds in the retina or retinal pigmented epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peirong Huang
- Center for Advanced Vision Science, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Siddharth Narendran
- Center for Advanced Vision Science, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Aravind Eye Care System, Madurai, India
| | - Felipe Pereira
- Center for Advanced Vision Science, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Departamento de Oftalmologia e Ciências Visuais, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Shinichi Fukuda
- Center for Advanced Vision Science, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Yosuke Nagasaka
- Center for Advanced Vision Science, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Ivana Apicella
- Center for Advanced Vision Science, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Praveen Yerramothu
- Center for Advanced Vision Science, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | | | - Xiaoyu Cai
- Center for Advanced Vision Science, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Srinivas R Sadda
- Doheny Eye Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Bradley D Gelfand
- Center for Advanced Vision Science, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Jayakrishna Ambati
- Center for Advanced Vision Science, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA.
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA.
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA.
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA.
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2
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Martinez B, Peplow PV. MicroRNAs in laser-induced choroidal neovascularization in mice and rats: their expression and potential therapeutic targets. Neural Regen Res 2021; 16:621-627. [PMID: 33063711 PMCID: PMC8067925 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.295271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Choroidal neovascularization characterizes wet age-related macular degeneration. Choroidal neovascularization formation involves a primarily angiogenic process that is combined with both inflammation and proteolysis. A primary cause of choroidal neovascularization pathogenesis is alterations in pro- and anti-angiogenic factors derived from the retinal pigment epithelium, with vascular endothelium growth factor being mainly responsible for both clinical and experimental choroidal neovascularization. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) which are short, non-coding, endogenous RNA molecules have a major role in regulating various pathological processes, including inflammation and angiogenesis. A review of recent studies with the mouse laser-induced choroidal neovascularization model has shown alterations in miRNA expression in choroidal neovascularization tissues and could be potential therapeutic targets for wet age-related macular degeneration. Upregulation of miR-505 (days 1 and 3 post-laser), miR-155 (day 14) occurred in retina; miR-342-5p (days 3 and 7), miR-126-3p (day 14) in choroid; miR-23a, miR-24, miR-27a (day 7) in retina/choroid; miR-505 (days 1 and 3) in retinal pigment epithelium/choroid; downregulation of miR-155 (days 1 and 3), miR-29a, miR-29b, miR-29c (day 5), miR-93 (day 14), miR-126 (day 14) occurred in retinal pigment epithelium/choroid. Therapies using miRNA mimics or inhibitors were found to decrease choroidal neovascularization lesions. Choroidal neovascularization development was reduced by overexpression of miR-155, miR-188-5p, miR-(5,B,7), miR-126-3p, miR-342-5p, miR-93, miR-126, miR-195a-3p, miR-24, miR-21, miR-31, miR-150, and miR-184, or suppression of miR-505, miR-126-3p, miR-155, and miR-23/27. Further studies are warranted to determine miRNA expression in mouse laser-induced choroidal neovascularization models in order to validate and extend the reported findings. Important experimental variables need to be standardized; these include the strain and age of animals, gender, number and position of laser burns to the eye, laser parameters to induce choroidal neovascularization lesions including wavelength, power, spot size, and duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget Martinez
- Physical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, Chemistry Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA; Department of Medicine, St. Georges University School of Medicine, Grenada
| | - Philip V Peplow
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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Aisenbrey EA, Murphy WL. Synthetic alternatives to Matrigel. NATURE REVIEWS. MATERIALS 2020; 5:539-551. [PMID: 32953138 PMCID: PMC7500703 DOI: 10.1038/s41578-020-0199-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 390] [Impact Index Per Article: 97.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Matrigel, a basement-membrane matrix extracted from Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm mouse sarcomas, has been used for more than four decades for a myriad of cell culture applications. However, Matrigel is limited in its applicability to cellular biology, therapeutic cell manufacturing and drug discovery owing to its complex, ill-defined and variable composition. Variations in the mechanical and biochemical properties within a single batch of Matrigel - and between batches - have led to uncertainty in cell culture experiments and a lack of reproducibility. Moreover, Matrigel is not conducive to physical or biochemical manipulation, making it difficult to fine-tune the matrix to promote intended cell behaviours and achieve specific biological outcomes. Recent advances in synthetic scaffolds have led to the development of xenogenic-free, chemically defined, highly tunable and reproducible alternatives. In this Review, we assess the applications of Matrigel in cell culture, regenerative medicine and organoid assembly, detailing the limitations of Matrigel and highlighting synthetic scaffold alternatives that have shown equivalent or superior results. Additionally, we discuss the hurdles that are limiting a full transition from Matrigel to synthetic scaffolds and provide a brief perspective on the future directions of synthetic scaffolds for cell culture applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - William L. Murphy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, University of Wisconsin–Madison, WI, USA
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Abokyi S, To CH, Lam TT, Tse DY. Central Role of Oxidative Stress in Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Evidence from a Review of the Molecular Mechanisms and Animal Models. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2020; 2020:7901270. [PMID: 32104539 PMCID: PMC7035553 DOI: 10.1155/2020/7901270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a common cause of visual impairment in the elderly. There are very limited therapeutic options for AMD with the predominant therapies targeting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the retina of patients afflicted with wet AMD. Hence, it is important to remind readers, especially those interested in AMD, about current studies that may help to develop novel therapies for other stages of AMD. This study, therefore, provides a comprehensive review of studies on human specimens as well as rodent models of the disease, to identify and analyze the molecular mechanisms behind AMD development and progression. The evaluation of this information highlights the central role that oxidative damage in the retina plays in contributing to major pathways, including inflammation and angiogenesis, found in the AMD phenotype. Following on the debate of oxidative stress as the earliest injury in the AMD pathogenesis, we demonstrated how the targeting of oxidative stress-associated pathways, such as autophagy and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling, might be the futuristic direction to explore in the search of an effective treatment for AMD, as the dysregulation of these mechanisms is crucial to oxidative injury in the retina. In addition, animal models of AMD have been discussed in great detail, with their strengths and pitfalls included, to assist inform in the selection of suitable models for investigating any of the molecular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Abokyi
- School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
- Department of Optometry, University of Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Chi-Ho To
- School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
| | - Tim T. Lam
- School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
| | - Dennis Y. Tse
- School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
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Pena CD, Zhang S, Majeska R, Venkatesh T, Vazquez M. Invertebrate Retinal Progenitors as Regenerative Models in a Microfluidic System. Cells 2019; 8:cells8101301. [PMID: 31652654 PMCID: PMC6829900 DOI: 10.3390/cells8101301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Regenerative retinal therapies have introduced progenitor cells to replace dysfunctional or injured neurons and regain visual function. While contemporary cell replacement therapies have delivered retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) within customized biomaterials to promote viability and enable transplantation, outcomes have been severely limited by the misdirected and/or insufficient migration of transplanted cells. RPCs must achieve appropriate spatial and functional positioning in host retina, collectively, to restore vision, whereas movement of clustered cells differs substantially from the single cell migration studied in classical chemotaxis models. Defining how RPCs interact with each other, neighboring cell types and surrounding extracellular matrixes are critical to our understanding of retinogenesis and the development of effective, cell-based approaches to retinal replacement. The current article describes a new bio-engineering approach to investigate the migratory responses of innate collections of RPCs upon extracellular substrates by combining microfluidics with the well-established invertebrate model of Drosophila melanogaster. Experiments utilized microfluidics to investigate how the composition, size, and adhesion of RPC clusters on defined extracellular substrates affected migration to exogenous chemotactic signaling. Results demonstrated that retinal cluster size and composition influenced RPC clustering upon extracellular substrates of concanavalin (Con-A), Laminin (LM), and poly-L-lysine (PLL), and that RPC cluster size greatly altered collective migratory responses to signaling from Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF), a primary chemotactic agent in Drosophila. These results highlight the significance of examining collective cell-biomaterial interactions on bio-substrates of emerging biomaterials to aid directional migration of transplanted cells. Our approach further introduces the benefits of pairing genetically controlled models with experimentally controlled microenvironments to advance cell replacement therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline D Pena
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City College of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA.
| | - Stephanie Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The State University of New York at Binghamton, NY 13902, USA.
| | - Robert Majeska
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City College of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA.
| | - Tadmiri Venkatesh
- Department of Biology, City College of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA.
| | - Maribel Vazquez
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers University, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ 08854, USA.
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Park J, Baranov P, Aydin A, Abdelgawad H, Singh D, Niu W, Kurisawa M, Spector M, Young MJ. In Situ Cross-linking Hydrogel as a Vehicle for Retinal Progenitor Cell Transplantation. Cell Transplant 2019; 28:596-606. [PMID: 30917696 PMCID: PMC7103606 DOI: 10.1177/0963689719825614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the current limitations of retinal transplantation of stem cells as well as other cell types is the dispersion of cells from the injection site (including loss of cells into the vitreous chamber) and low survival after transplantation. Gelatin-hydroxyphenyl propionic acid (Gtn-HPA) conjugate is a biodegradable polymer that can undergo covalent cross-linking in situ, allowing for injection of incorporated cells through a small caliber needle followed by gel formation in vivo. We tested the hypothesis that Gtn-HPA hydrogel supports survival and integration of retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) post-transplantation. In vitro compatibility and in vivo graft survival were assessed by mixing an equal volume of Gtn-HPA conjugate and RPC suspension and triggering enzyme-mediated gelation, using minute amounts of horseradish peroxidase and peroxide. Immunocytochemistry showed >80% survival of cells and minimal apoptosis for cells incorporated into Gtn-HPA, equivalent to controls grown on fibronectin-coated flasks. RPCs undergoing mitosis were seen within the three-dimensional Gtn-HPA hydrogel, but the percentage of Ki-67-positive cells was lower compared with the monolayer controls. For in vivo studies, gel-cell mixture or cell suspension in saline was trans-sclerally injected into the left eye of female Long Evans rats immunosuppressed with cyclosporine A. Grafts survived at the 1 week time point of the study, with Gtn-HPA-delivered grafts showing less inflammatory response demonstrated by anti-leukocyte staining. More eyes in the gel-cell mixture group showed surviving cells in the subretinal space compared with saline-delivered controls, while the number of cells surviving per graft was not significantly different between the two groups. This work demonstrates an injectable in situ cross-linking hydrogel as a potential vehicle for stem cell delivery in the retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeayoung Park
- 1 Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston, MA, USA.,2 Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Petr Baranov
- 1 Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Aybike Aydin
- 1 Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Hany Abdelgawad
- 1 Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Deepti Singh
- 1 Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Wanting Niu
- 3 Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Myron Spector
- 3 Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Michael J Young
- 1 Schepens Eye Research Institute of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston, MA, USA
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Joyal JS, Gantner ML, Smith LEH. Retinal energy demands control vascular supply of the retina in development and disease: The role of neuronal lipid and glucose metabolism. Prog Retin Eye Res 2017; 64:131-156. [PMID: 29175509 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Sébastien Joyal
- Department of Pediatrics, Pharmacology and Ophthalmology, CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Qc, Canada; Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Qc, Canada.
| | - Marin L Gantner
- The Lowy Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, United States
| | - Lois E H Smith
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston MA 02115, United States.
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Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Retinal Pigmented Epithelium in Retinal Treatment: from Bench to Bedside. Mol Neurobiol 2014; 50:597-612. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-014-8684-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Study in vivo intraocular biocompatibility of in situ gelation hydrogels: poly(2-ethyl oxazoline)-block-poly(ε-caprolactone)-block-poly(2-ethyl oxazoline) copolymer, matrigel and pluronic F127. PLoS One 2013; 8:e67495. [PMID: 23840873 PMCID: PMC3698124 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Accepted: 05/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The long term in vivo biocompatibility is an essential feature for the design and development of sustained drug release carriers. In the recent intraocular drug delivery studies, hydrogels were suggested as sustained release carriers. The biocompatibility test for these hydrogels, however, was commonly performed only through in vitro cell culture examination, which is insufficient before the clinical applications. We compared three thermosensitive hydrogels that have been suggested as the carriers for drugs by their gel-solution phase-change properties. A new block terpolymer (PEOz-PCL-PEOz, ECE) and two commercial products (Matrigel® and Pluronic F127) were studied. The results demonstrated that the ocular media remained translucent for ECE and Pluronic F127 in the first 2 weeks, but cataract formation for Matrigel occurred in 2 weeks and for Pluronic F127 in 1 month, while turbid media was observed for both Matrigel and Pluronic F127 in 2 months. The electrophysiology examinations showed significant neuroretinal toxicity of Matrigel and Pluronic F127 but good biocompatibility of ECE. The neuroretinal toxicity of Matrigel and Pluronic F127 and superior biocompatibility of ECE hydrogel suggests ECE as more appropriate biomaterial for use in research and potentially in intraocular application.
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Abstract
The development of in vivo retinal fundus imaging in mice has opened a new research horizon, not only in ophthalmic research. The ability to monitor the dynamics of vascular and cellular changes in pathological conditions, such as neovascularization or degeneration, longitudinally without the need to sacrifice the mouse, permits longer observation periods in the same animal. With the application of the high-resolution confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy in experimental mouse models, access to a large spectrum of imaging modalities in vivo is provided.
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Chu XK, Wang Y, Ardeljan D, Tuo J, Chan CC. Controversial view of a genetically altered mouse model of focal retinal degeneration. Bioengineered 2012. [PMID: 23196746 PMCID: PMC3669152 DOI: 10.4161/bioe.22949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuo et al. (2012) demonstrated tumor necrosis factor-inducible gene 6 recombinant protein (TSG-6) arrest of focal retinal lesions on a Ccl2 and Cx3cr1 double deficient mouse (DKO) on rd8 background (hereon referred to as DKO rd8). DKO rd8, a model of focal retinal degeneration with earlier onset and higher penetrance than Ccl2 and Cx3cr1 single knockout strains, demonstrates characteristic features of AMD such as focal photoreceptor atrophy, retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) degeneration, elevated ocular A2E levels and complement deposition in addition to retinal dystrophy. The discovery of the accidently introduced Crb1 mutation (rd8) in the C57BL/6N strain has led to the recent opinion that DKO rd8 is not a model of AMD but solely a model of Crb1‑associated retinal degeneration. Differences between DKO rd8 and Crb1rd8 photoreceptor and RPE pathology, as well as increased A2E and immune dysfunction, show that DKO rd8 recapitulates some AMD‑like features in addition to rd8 retinal dystrophy. The appearance of rd8 lesions and Ccl2/Cx3cr1 lesions and the amelioration of most Ccl2/Cx3cr1 lesions in intervention studies show DKO rd8 to be a useful and appropriate model for therapeutic compound screening, such as the case with anti-inflammatory TSG‑6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi K Chu
- Immunopathology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Pennesi ME, Neuringer M, Courtney RJ. Animal models of age related macular degeneration. Mol Aspects Med 2012; 33:487-509. [PMID: 22705444 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2012.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Age related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of vision loss of those over the age of 65 in the industrialized world. The prevalence and need to develop effective treatments for AMD has lead to the development of multiple animal models. AMD is a complex and heterogeneous disease that involves the interaction of both genetic and environmental factors with the unique anatomy of the human macula. Models in mice, rats, rabbits, pigs and non-human primates have recreated many of the histological features of AMD and provided much insight into the underlying pathological mechanisms of this disease. In spite of the large number of models developed, no one model yet recapitulates all of the features of human AMD. However, these models have helped reveal the roles of chronic oxidative damage, inflammation and immune dysregulation, and lipid metabolism in the development of AMD. Models for induced choroidal neovascularization have served as the backbone for testing new therapies. This article will review the diversity of animal models that exist for AMD as well as their strengths and limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark E Pennesi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
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Tuo J, Cao X, Shen D, Wang Y, Zhang J, Oh JY, Prockop DJ, Chan CC. Anti-inflammatory recombinant TSG-6 stabilizes the progression of focal retinal degeneration in a murine model. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:59. [PMID: 22452753 PMCID: PMC3359240 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 03/27/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Inflammatory responses are detected in the retina of patients with age-related macular degeneration and Ccl2-/-/Cx3cr1-/- mice on rd8 background,(Ccl2-/-/Cx3cr1-/- mice) a model that develops progressive age-related macular degeneration-like retinal lesions including focal photoreceptor degeneration, abnormal retinal pigment epithelium and A2E accumulation. Tumor necrosis factor-inducible gene 6 protein is an anti-inflammatory protein and has been shown to improve myocardial infarction outcome and chemically injured cornea in mice by suppressing inflammation. In this study, we evaluated the effect of an intravitreous injection of recombinant TSG-6 on the retinal lesions of Ccl2-/-/Cx3cr1-/- mice. Methods Recombinant TSG-6 (400 ng) was administered by intravitreous injection into the right eye of six-week-old Ccl2-/-/Cx3cr1-/- mice. Their left eye was injected with phosphate-buffered saline as a control. Funduscopic pictures were taken before injection and sequentially once a month after injection. The mice were killed two months after injection and the ocular histology examined. Retinal A2E, a major component of lipofuscin, was measured by high performance liquid chromatography. The microarray of ocular mRNA of 92 immunological genes was performed. The genes showing differentiated expression in microarray were further compared between the injected right eye and the contralateral (control) eye by [real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction] qRT-PCR. Results The continuous monitoring of the fundus for two months showed a slower progression or alleviation of retinal lesions in the treated right eyes as compared with the untreated left eyes. Among 23 pairs of eyes, the lesion levels improved in 78.3%, stayed the same in 8.7% and progressed in 13.0%. Histology confirmed the clinical observation. Even though there was no difference in the level of A2E between the treated and the untreated eyes, microarray analysis of 92 immune genes showed that IL-17a was substantially decreased after the treatment. Expression of TNF-α showed a similar pattern to IL-17a. The results were consistent in duplicated arrays and confirmed by qRT-PCR. Conclusions We concluded that intravitreous administration of recombinant TSG-6 might stabilize retinal lesions in Ccl2-/-/Cx3cr1-/- mice on rd8 background. Modulation of ocular immunological gene expressions, especially IL-17a, could be one of the mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingsheng Tuo
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Shiose S, Chen Y, Okano K, Roy S, Kohno H, Tang J, Pearlman E, Maeda T, Palczewski K, Maeda A. Toll-like receptor 3 is required for development of retinopathy caused by impaired all-trans-retinal clearance in mice. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:15543-55. [PMID: 21383019 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.228551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic inflammation is an important component that contributes to many age-related neurodegenerative diseases, including macular degeneration. Here, we report a role for toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) in cone-rod dystrophy (CORD) of mice lacking ATP-binding cassette transporter 4 (ABCA4) and retinol dehydrogenase 8 (RDH8), proteins critical for all-trans-retinal clearance in the retina. Increased expression of toll-like receptor-signaling elements and inflammatory changes were observed in Rdh8(-/-)Abca4(-/-) eyes by RNA expression analysis. Unlike 3-month-old Rdh8(-/-)Abca4(-/-) mice that developed CORD, 6-month-old Tlr3(-/-)Rdh8(-/-)Abca4(-/-) mice did not evidence an abnormal retinal phenotype. Light-induced retinal degeneration in Tlr3(-/-)Rdh8(-/-)Abca4(-/-) mice was milder than that in Rdh8(-/-)Abca4(-/-) mice, and a 2-fold increased TLR3 expression was detected in light-illuminated retinas of Rdh8(-/-)Abca4(-/-) mice compared with nonilluminated retinas. Poly(I-C), a TLR3 ligand, caused caspase-8-independent cellular apoptosis. Whereas poly(I-C) induced retinal cell death in Rdh8(-/-)Abca4(-/-) and WT mice both in vivo and ex vivo, this was not seen in mice lacking Tlr3. Far fewer invasive macrophage/microglial cells in the subretinal space and weaker activation of Muller glial cells were exhibited by Tlr3(-/-)Rdh8(-/-) Abca4(-/-) mice compared with Rdh8(-/-)Abca4(-/-) mice at 3 and 6 months of age, indicating that loss of TLR3 inhibits local inflammation in the retina. Both poly(I-C) and endogenous products emanating from dying/dead retinal cells induced NF-κB and IRF3 activation. These findings demonstrate that endogenous products from degenerating retina stimulate TLR3 that causes cellular apoptosis and retinal inflammation and that loss of TLR3 protects mice from CORD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satomi Shiose
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
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Grossniklaus HE, Kang SJ, Berglin L. Animal models of choroidal and retinal neovascularization. Prog Retin Eye Res 2010; 29:500-19. [PMID: 20488255 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2010.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
There have been numerous types of animal models of choroidal neovascularization (CNV) and retinal neovascularization (RNV). Understanding the pathobiology of CNV and RNV is important when evaluating and utilizing these models. Both CNV and RNV are dynamic processes. A break or defect in Bruchs' membrane is necessary for CNV to develop. This may be induced with a laser, mechanically via surgery, or in the setting of transgenic mice. Some of the transgenic mouse models spontaneously develop RNV and/or retinal angiomatous proliferation (RAP)-like lesions. The pathogenesis of RNV is well-known and is generally related to ischemic retinopathy. Models of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) closely resemble retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). The streptozotocin (STZ) rat model develops features similar to diabetic retinopathy. This review summarizes general categories and specific examples of animal models of CNV and RNV. There are no perfect models of CNV or RNV and individual investigators are encouraged to choose the model that best suits their needs.
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Albert DM, Neekhra A, Wang S, Darjatmoko SR, Sorenson CM, Dubielzig RR, Sheibani N. Development of choroidal neovascularization in rats with advanced intense cyclic light-induced retinal degeneration. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 128:212-22. [PMID: 20142545 DOI: 10.1001/archophthalmol.2009.395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To study the progressive changes of intense cyclic light-induced retinal degeneration and to determine whether it results in choroidal neovascularization (CNV). METHODS Albino rats were exposed to 12 hours of 3000-lux cyclic light for 1, 3, or 6 months. Fundus examination, fundus photography, fluorescein and indocyanine green angiography, and optical coherence tomography were performed prior to euthanization. Light-exposed animals were euthanized after 1, 3, or 6 months for histopathological evaluation. Retinas were examined for the presence of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal- and nitrotyrosine-modified proteins by immunofluorescence staining. RESULTS Long-term intense cyclic light exposure resulted in retinal degeneration with loss of the outer segments of photoreceptors and approximately two-thirds of the outer nuclear layer as well as development of subretinal pigment epithelium neovascularization after 1 month. Almost the entire outer nuclear layer was absent with the presence of CNV, which penetrated the Bruch membrane and extended into the outer retina after 3 months. Absence of the outer nuclear layer, multiple foci of CNV, retinal pigment epithelial fibrous metaplasia, and connective tissue bands containing blood vessels extending into the retina were observed after 6 months. All intense light-exposed animals showed an increased presence of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal and nitrotyrosine staining. Optical coherence tomographic and angiographic studies confirmed retinal thinning and leakiness of the newly formed blood vessels. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that albino rats develop progressive stages of retinal degeneration and CNV after long-term intense cyclic light exposure, allowing the detailed study of the pathogenesis and treatment of age-related macular degeneration. CLINICAL RELEVANCE The ability to study the progressive pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration and CNV will provide detailed knowledge about the disease and aid in the development of target-specific therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Albert
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, 600 Highland Ave, K6/458 CSC, Madison, WI 53792-4673, USA
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Modulation of choroidal neovascularization by subretinal injection of retinal pigment epithelium and polystyrene microbeads. Mol Vis 2009; 15:146-61. [PMID: 19158960 PMCID: PMC2628316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2008] [Accepted: 01/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The study was conducted to create a rapidly developing and reproducible animal model of subretinal choroidal neovascularization (CNV) that allows a time-dependent evaluation of growth dynamics, histopathologic features, and cytokine expression. METHODS C57BL/6 and chemoattractant leukocyte protein-2 deficient (DeltaCcl-2) mice were studied. Mice received single or combined subretinal injections of cultured retinal pigment epithelium (RPE; C57BL/6-derived), polystyrene microbeads, or phosphate buffer solution (PBS). Fluorescence angiograms were performed over a period of 3 weeks. Mice were euthanized on post inoculation day 3, 7, 10, 14, or 21, and their eyes were evaluated by light, confocal, and electron microscopy. RESULTS CNV membranes occurred in all study groups with an overall incidence of 94.3%. They extended in the subretinal space through central breaks in Bruch's membrane. CNV lesions were characterized by dynamic changes such as initiation, active inflammatory, and involution stages. CNV thickness peaked around PI day 7 and was greater in mice that received combined injections of RPE and microbeads or RPE cells alone. Small lesions developed in the control groups (microbeads or PBS only), in DeltaCcl-2, and old C57BL/6 mice. Variable expression of cytokines and growth factors was detected within the membranes. CONCLUSIONS Our murine model represents a reliable approach inducing CNV growth by subretinal injection of either RPE cells alone or RPE cells and microbeads. The development of CNV lesions is a dynamic process that relies in part on macrophage trafficking and age.
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Davies MH, Stempel AJ, Powers MR. MCP-1 deficiency delays regression of pathologic retinal neovascularization in a model of ischemic retinopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49:4195-202. [PMID: 18487365 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.07-1491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The present study investigates whether retinal neovascularization (NV) and apoptosis are altered in MCP-1-deficient ((-/-)) mice in the OIR model. METHODS Postnatal day (P) 7 MCP-1(-/-) and C57BL/6 (B6) mice were exposed to 75% oxygen for 5 days and then recovered in room air. Immunostaining was performed to localize macrophages/microglia within retinal whole mounts and cross-sections. Retinopathy was qualitatively assessed in FITC-dextran-perfused retinas, and preretinal NV was quantified on P17, P21, and P24. TUNEL analysis was used to compare apoptosis between B6 and MCP-1(-/-) mice. RESULTS MCP-1(-/-) and B6 mice revealed normal vascular development in room air controls and similar vaso-obliteration in oxygen-exposed mice on P12. MCP-1(-/-) mice exhibited significantly reduced vascular tuft-associated F4/80(+) cells compared with B6 mice. FITC-dextran-perfused retinas exhibited prominent neovascular tufts on P17, and quantification of preretinal nuclei revealed no significant differences between MCP-1(-/-) and B6 mice. In contrast, on P21 and P24, MCP-1(-/-) mice exhibited significant increases in preretinal neovascular nuclei compared with B6 controls. These increases in NV in the MCP-1(-/-) mice were associated with a significant reduction in vascular tuft apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS The results demonstrate that the absence of MCP-1 does not alter normal retinal vascular development. Furthermore, MCP-1(-/-) mice exhibit a similar neovascular response on P17. However, the reduction in tuft-associated macrophages/microglia in the MCP-1(-/-) mice correlates with reduced vascular tuft apoptosis and delayed regression of retinal NV. These findings suggest that macrophages/microglia may contribute to tuft regression through their proapoptotic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael H Davies
- Department of Pediatrics, Casey Eye Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
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Tuo J, Bojanowski CM, Zhou M, Shen D, Ross RJ, Rosenberg KI, Cameron DJ, Yin C, Kowalak JA, Zhuang Z, Zhang K, Chan CC. Murine ccl2/cx3cr1 deficiency results in retinal lesions mimicking human age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2007; 48:3827-36. [PMID: 17652758 PMCID: PMC2048751 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.07-0051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Senescent Ccl2(-/-) mice are reported to develop cardinal features of human age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Loss-of-function single-nucleotide polymorphisms within CX3CR1 are also found to be associated with AMD. The authors generated Ccl2(-/-)/Cx3cr1(-/-) mice to establish a more characteristic and reproducible AMD model. METHODS Single Ccl2- and Cx3cr1-deficient mice were crossbred to obtain Ccl2(-/-)/Cx3cr1(-/-) mice. Funduscopy, histopathology, retinal A2E quantification, proteomics, RT-PCR gene expression assay, immunochemistry, and Western blotting were used to examine the retina and to evaluate gene expression within the retinal tissue. RESULTS By 6 weeks of age, all Ccl2(-/-)/Cx3cr1(-/-) mice developed AMD-like retinal lesions, including drusen, retinal pigment epithelium alteration, and photoreceptor degeneration. Furthermore, choroidal neovascularization occurred in 15% of the mice. These degenerative lesions progressed with age. A2E, a major lipofuscin fluorophore that accumulated during AMD progression, was significantly higher in the Ccl2(-/-)/Cx3cr1(-/-) retina than in the wild-type retina. Complement cofactor was higher in the Ccl2(-/-)/Cx3cr1(-/-) RPE. Proteomics data indicated that four proteins were differentially expressed in Ccl2(-/-)/Cx3cr1(-/-) retina compared with control. One of these proteins, ERp29, an endoplasmic reticulum protein, functions as an escort chaperone and in protein folding. CONCLUSIONS The authors concluded that Ccl2(-/-)/Cx3cr1(-/-) mice develop a broad spectrum of AMD abnormalities with early onset and high penetrance. These observations implicate certain chemokines and endoplasmic reticulum proteins in AMD pathogenesis. Similar to the mechanism of neurodegeneration caused by dysfunction of endoplasmic reticulum proteins, decreased chaperoning may cause misfolded protein accumulation, leading to drusen formation and retinal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingsheng Tuo
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Christine M. Bojanowski
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Min Zhou
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Defen Shen
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Robert J. Ross
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Kevin I. Rosenberg
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | | | - Chunyue Yin
- Surgical Neurology Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Jeffrey A. Kowalak
- Laboratory of Neurotoxicology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Zhengping Zhuang
- Surgical Neurology Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Kang Zhang
- John Moran Eye Center, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
| | - Chi-Chao Chan
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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Nakazawa T, Hisatomi T, Nakazawa C, Noda K, Maruyama K, She H, Matsubara A, Miyahara S, Nakao S, Yin Y, Benowitz L, Hafezi-Moghadam A, Miller JW. Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 mediates retinal detachment-induced photoreceptor apoptosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:2425-30. [PMID: 17284607 PMCID: PMC1892947 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0608167104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Photoreceptor apoptosis is a major cause of visual loss in retinal detachment (RD) and several other visual disorders, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Recently, increased expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) was reported in vitreous humor samples of patients with RD and diabetic retinopathy as well as in the brain tissues of patients with neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis. Here we report that MCP-1 plays a critical role in mediating photoreceptor apoptosis in an experimental model of RD. RD led to increased MCP-1 expression in the Müller glia and increased CD11b+ macrophage/microglia in the detached retina. An MCP-1 blocking antibody greatly reduced macrophage/microglia infiltration and RD-induced photoreceptor apoptosis. Confirming these results, MCP-1 gene-deficient mice showed significantly reduced macrophage/microglia infiltration after RD and very little photoreceptor apoptosis. In primary retinal mixed cultures, MCP-1 was cytotoxic for recoverin+ photoreceptors, and this toxicity was eliminated through immunodepleting macrophage/microglia from the culture. In vivo, deletion of the gene encoding CD11b/CD18 nearly eliminated macrophage/microglia infiltration to the retina after RD and the loss of photoreceptors. Thus, MCP-1 expression and subsequent macrophage/microglia infiltration and activation are critical for RD-induced photoreceptor apoptosis. This pathway may be an important therapeutic target for preventing photoreceptor apoptosis in RD and other CNS diseases that share a common etiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toru Nakazawa
- *Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, and
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8574, Japan
| | - Toshio Hisatomi
- *Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, and
| | - Chifuyu Nakazawa
- *Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, and
| | - Kosuke Noda
- *Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, and
| | - Kazuichi Maruyama
- *Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, and
| | - Haicheng She
- *Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, and
| | - Akihisa Matsubara
- *Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, and
| | - Shinsuke Miyahara
- *Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, and
| | - Shintaro Nakao
- *Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, and
| | - Yuqin Yin
- Department of Neurosurgery and Neurobiology Program, Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114; and
| | - Larry Benowitz
- Department of Neurosurgery and Neurobiology Program, Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114; and
| | - Ali Hafezi-Moghadam
- *Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, and
| | - Joan W. Miller
- *Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, and
- To whom correspondence should be addressed at:
Angiogenesis Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114. E-mail:
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