Hepatocellular carcinoma and chemotherapy: the role of p53

Diosgenin potentiates the anticancer effect of doxorubicin and volasertib via regulating polo-like kinase 1 and triggering apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells

A common approach to cancer therapy is the combination of a natural product with chemotherapy to overcome sustained cell proliferation and chemotherapy resistance obstacles. Diosgenin (DG) is a phytosteroidal saponin that is naturally present in a vast number of plants and has been shown to exert anti-cancer activities against several tumor cells. Herein, we assessed the chemo-modulatory effects of DG on volasertib (Vola) as a polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) inhibitor and doxorubicin (DOX) in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines. DOX and Vola were applied to two human HCC cell lines (HepG2 and Huh-7) alone or in combination with DG. The cell viability was determined, and gene expressions of PLK1, PCNA, P53, caspase-3, and PARP1 were evaluated by RT-qPCR. Moreover, apoptosis induction was determined by measuring active caspase-3 level using ELISA method. DG enhanced the anticancer effects of Vola and DOX. Moreover, DG enhanced Vola- and DOX-induced cell death by downregulating the expressions of PLK1 and PCNA, elevating the expressions of P53 and active caspase-3. DG showed promising chemo-modulatory effects to Vola and DOX against HCC that may be attributed partly to the downregulation of PLK1 and PCNA, upregulation of tumor suppressor protein P53, and apoptosis induction. Thus, DG combination with chemotherapy may be a promising treatment approach for HCC.

Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation analysis of bioactive compounds of Cichorium intybus L. seed against hepatocellular carcinoma

In this article, bioactive compounds present in Cichorium intybus L. seeds were collected from literature review and analyzed for probable remedy for hepatocellular carcinoma. Cichorium intybus L. is a traditional plant used all over the world mainly in hepatic disorders and renal diseases. This therapeutic plant has many bioactive compounds like chicoric acid, chlorogenic acid, sesquiterpne lactones, stigmasterols etc are found in seeds. Here, the target protein p53 (PDB ID: 2OCJ) which is involved in many cancerous pathways, is chosen. The preADMET study filtered out some compounds which were then subjected to molecular docking studies by Autodock tool 4.2. Afterwards, two best compounds (Esculetin and Isochlorogenic acid) were screened out on the basis of binding energy as compared to the standard compound (Doxorubicin). All these complexes were then analyzed for stability by molecular dynamics using online GROMACS tool. In the comparative simulation study, the compound Esculetin shows a stable interaction with the p53 over the 100 ns trajectory. Hepatocellular carcinoma accounts for high mortality of cancer related death worldwide. These findings suggest that these compound can be used to treat the hepatocellular carcinoma.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Vitamin D ameliorates diethylnitrosamine-induced liver preneoplasia: A pivotal role of CYP3A4/CYP2E1 via DPP-4 enzyme inhibition

Growing evidence has indicated that vitamin D (Vit D) regulates cell proliferation and differentiation in cancer cells. Accordingly, the present study was conducted to investigate the possible beneficial effects of Vit D on diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced liver preneoplasia. The effect of Vit D on HepG2 cells was investigated using MTT assay. Additionally, liver preneoplasia was induced in Swiss male albino mice by giving overnight fasted animals 5 consecutive doses of DEN (75 mg/kg/week). Oral treatment with Vit D (200 IU/kg/day) was initiated either 2 weeks before DEN (first protocol) or 1 week after the first dose of DEN injection (second protocol). At the end of the experiment, tissue levels of GGT, DPP-4, TNF-α, IL-6, CYP2E1, and CYP3A4 were also estimated. Moreover, the histopathological study of liver tissue and immunohistochemical detection of GST-P, PCNA, and NF-κB were performed. Vit D exerted a significant cytotoxic effect on HepG2 cells via significantly increasing BAX, p53, and BAX/Bcl2 ratio, and significantly decreasing Bcl2 mRNA expression. In both in vivo protocols, Vit D was capable of normalizing relative liver weight, PCNA, altered hepatocellular foci, and ductular proliferation. Moreover, Vit D significantly reduced the DEN-induced elevation of AST, ALT, ALP, GGT, DDP-4, TNF-α, IL-6, CYP2E1, liver DNA damage, GST-P, NF-κB, nuclear hyperchromasia/pleomorphism, cholestasis, and inflammatory cell aggregates, but significantly increased CYP3A4 content. In conculsion, current results reflect the potential impact of Vit D in the management of early stages of liver cancer.

Enabling perfusion through multicellular tumor spheroids promoting lumenization in a vascularized cancer model

A tumor is composed of heterogeneous cell population, which is known as tumor stroma. In particular, blood vessels have an indispensable role in the tumor microenvironment acting as a key player in anti-cancer drug delivery. Recently, efforts have been made to accurately recapitulate the microenvironment by employing distinct cell types, however, the proper formation of perfusable tumor tissue is challenging. Here, perfusable tumor tissue is engineered by implanting multicellular tumor spheroids inside the microfluidic devices. Blood perfusion, spheroid growth, and vascular dynamics were monitored according to the spheroid composition and the contribution of internal and external vascular cells to spheroid perfusion was analyzed. Most notably, the increased penetration depth of fluorescence conjugated anti-cancer drug was observed in tri-culture spheroids. The implementation of tumor microenvironment reconstruction developed in this study not only creates a perfusable tumor vascular model but can also be utilized as a novel drug screening platform with patient-derived samples.

Differential response of hepatocellular carcinoma glycolytic metabolism and oxidative stress markers after exposure to human amniotic membrane proteins

BACKGROUND

The human Amniotic Membrane (hAM) has been studied as a potential therapeutic option in cancer, namely in hepatocellular carcinoma. Previously, our research group evaluated the effect of human Amniotic Membrane Protein Extracts (hAMPE) in cancer therapy, demonstrating that hAMPE inhibit the metabolic activity of human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines: Hep3B2.1-7, HepG2 and Huh7. Therefore, and considering the close relationship between metabolic activity and oxidative stress, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of hAMPE treatment in glucose metabolism and its role in oxidative stress of hepatocellular carcinoma.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Glucose uptake and lactate production was assessed by 1 H-NMR, and the expression of several mediators of the glycolytic pathway was evaluated by Western blot or fluorescence. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and biomarkers of oxidative stress effects in proteins were detected. Our results showed that hAMPE treatment increased glucose consumption on Hep3B2.1-7, HepG2, and Huh7 through the increase of GLUT1 in Hep3B2.1-7 and Huh7, and GLUT3 in HepG2 cells. It was observed an increased expression of 6-phosphofrutokinase (PFK-1L) in all cell lines though glucose was not converted to lactate on HepG2 and Huh7 cells, suggesting that hAMPE treatment may counteract the Warburg effect observed in carcinogenesis. In Hep3B2.1-7, hAMPE treatment induced an increase in expression of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and monocarboxylate transporter isoform 4 (MCT4). We further detected that hAMPE enhances the TAC of culture media after 2 and 8 h. This was followed by a degree of protection against proteins nitration and carbonylation.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, this work highlights the potential usefulness of hAMPE as anticancer therapy through the modulation of the glycolytic and oxidative profile in human hepatocellular carcinoma.

Bioactive xanthones, benzophenones and biphenyls from mangosteen root with potential anti-migration against hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Liver cancer refers primarily to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) accounting for over 90% of cases and is the highest incidence in men in Thailand. Over the past decades, the incidence of HCC dramatically increased with a strong rise of mortality rates. Garcinia mangostana, “Queen of Fruit” of Thailand, is known as a rich source of xanthones with potent cytotoxic properties against various cancer cells. Study on xanthones is provoking not only due to the structural diversity but also a wide variety of pharmacological activities. Hence the aim of the current study is to determine the effects of metabolites from G. mangostana root on cell proliferation and migration of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Twenty-two metabolites, including two new benzophenones and one new biphenyl, were isolated and characterized. Five xanthones with a prenyl moiety showed significant cytotoxicity against both HCC cells tested; however, only dulxanthone D displayed the most promising activity on the migration of Huh7 HCC cells, comparable to sorafenib, a standard drug. Moreover, the compound dose-dependently induced apoptosis in Huh7 cells via mitochondrial pathway. Accordingly, dulxanthone D held a great potential for development as a novel migration inhibitor for effective HCC treatment.

Design, synthesis, and antitumor activity evaluation of steroidal oximes

Steroidal compounds were proven to be efficient drugs against several types of cancer. Oximes are also chemical structures frequently associated with anticancer activity. The main goal of this work was to combine the two referred structures by synthesizing steroidal oximes and evaluating them in several cancer cell lines. Compounds (17E)-5α-androst-3-en-17-one oxime (3,4 - OLOX), (17E)-3α,4α-epoxy-5α-androstan-17-one oxime (3,4 - EPOX), (17E)-androst-4-en-17-one oxime (4,5 - OLOX) and (17E)-4α,5α-epoxyandrostan-17-one oxime (4,5 - EPOX) were synthesized and their cytotoxicity evaluated in four human cancer cell lines, namely colorectal adenocarcinoma (WiDr), non-small cell lung cancer (H1299), prostate cancer (PC3) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2). A human non-tumour cell line, CCD841 CoN (normal colon cell line) was also used. MTT assay, flow cytometry, fluorescence and hemocompatibility techniques were performed to further analyse the cytotoxicity of the compounds. 3,4 - OLOX was the most effective compound in decreasing tumour cell proliferation in all cell lines, especially in WiDr (IC₅₀ = 9.1 μM) and PC3 (IC₅₀ = 13.8 μM). 4,5 - OLOX also showed promising results in the same cell lines (IC₅₀ = 16.1 μM in WiDr and IC₅₀ = 14.5 μM in PC3). Further studies also revealed that 3,4 - OLOX and 4,5 - OLOX induced a decrease in cell viability accompanied by an increase in cell death, mainly by apoptosis/necroptosis for 3,4 - OLOX in both cell lines and for 4,5 - OLOX in WiDr cells, and by necrosis for 4,5 - OLOX in PC3 cells. These compounds might also exert their cytotoxicity by ROS production and are not toxic for non-tumour CCD841 CoN cells. Additionally, both compounds did not induce haemoglobin release, proving to be safe for intravenous administration. 3,4 - OLOX and 4,5 - OLOX might be the starting point for an optimization program towards the discover of new steroidal oximes for anticancer treatment.

Oxymestane, a cytostatic steroid derivative of exemestane with greater antitumor activity in non-estrogen-dependent cell lines

A new promising steroid derivative of Exemestane (Exe), the drug used for the treatment of estrogen-dependent breast cancer, was synthesized and evaluated against a set of human cancer cell lines. The new compound (Oxymestane-D1, Oxy) was tested comparatively with Exe against colon (C2BBe1, WiDr), liver (HepG2, HuH-7), lung (A549, H1299) and prostate (LNCaP, PC3) human cancer cell lines. Likewise, its effect on human colon normal cells (CCD-841 CoN) and human normal fibroblast cells (HFF-1) was studied. The cytostatic activity of Oxy was also compared with that of the reference cytostatic drugs used in chemotherapy protocols, namely carboplatin, cisplatin, doxorubicin, epirubicin, etoposide, flutamide, 5-fluorouracil, irinotecan, oxaliplatin and sorafenib. In all cell lines tested, Oxy proved to be more powerful cytostatic than Exe. Additionally, the IC₅₀ at 72 h showed a three-fold activity greater than 5-fluorouracil in the WiDr cell line, twice as high as cisplatin for cell line A549 and five times higher than cisplatin for cell line H1299. Also, Oxy surprisingly revealed to induce DNA damage and inhibit the DNA damage response (DDR) proteins ATM, ATR, CHK1 and CHK2. The results obtained allow concluding that Oxy can be a promising anticancer agent to be used in chemotherapy protocols. Furthermore, its ability to inhibit crucial components of DDR can also be useful for the monotherapy or for combination with chemo and/or radiotherapy of cancer.

Huxie Huaji Ointment Induced Apoptosis of Liver Cancer Cells In Vivo and In Vitro by Activating the Mitochondrial Pathway

Huxie Huaji (HXHJ) Ointment is a famous traditional Chinese medicinal prescription and is commonly used for the clinical treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma by boosting immunity and detoxification. However, the scientific evidence for the effect of HXHJ Ointment on hepatocellular carcinoma and the underlying molecular mechanism are lacking. The present study aimed to identify the effects of HXHJ Ointment on hepatocellular carcinoma in vitro and in vivo as well as investigating the mechanistic basis for the anticancer effect of HXHJ ointment. First, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to verify the composition of HXHJ Ointment and quality control. Second, in vitro, Cell Counting Kit (CCK8) cell viability assay and Hoechst 33342 staining assay were performed to explain the cell apoptosis. The protein levels of tumor suppressor protein (p53), B-cell lymphoma 2 gene (Bcl-2), cytochrome C (Cyt-C), and aspartate proteolytic enzyme-3 (caspase-3) were examined by immunofluorescence. Finally, in vivo, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining was used to observe the pathological changes in hepatocellular carcinoma samples. Western blots and immunohistochemistry were used to detect the anticancer properties of HXHJ ointment. The results in vitro showed that 20% HXHJ Ointment serum could significantly inhibit HepG2 cell proliferation, increased tumor suppressor gene p53, downregulated antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2, promoted the release of mitochondrial Cyt-C, activated caspase-3, and induced HepG2 cell apoptosis. Furthermore, in vivo experiments showed that HXHJ Ointment could effectively inhibit tumor growth in nude mice xenotransplanted with HepG2 cells, changed the morphology of tumor cells, and regulated the expression of apoptosis-related protein pathway p53/Bcl-2/Cyt-C/caspase-3. HXHJ Ointment can significantly inhibit the development of hepatocellular carcinoma, and its mechanism may be related to the regulation of p53/Bcl-2/Cyt-C/caspase-3 signaling pathway to induce cell mitochondrial apoptosis.

Evaluation of the antitumor activity of a series of the pincer-type metallocomplexes produced from isonicotinohydrazide derivative

In this work we report on the antitumor properties of a series of pincer-type metallocomplexes [Hg₂(HL-keto)Cl₄]_n (1), [Hg(HL-keto)I₂] (2) and [Mn(HL-zwitterion)Cl₂]∙MeOH (3∙MeOH), derived from N'-(1-(pyridin-2-yl)ethylidene)isonicotinohydrazide (HL) and corresponding metal salts. The Hg(II) and Mn(II) salts are chelated by the keto (HL-keto) or zwitterionic (HL-zwitterion) form of HL, respectively. The cytotoxic effects of these compounds have been accessed against lung adenocarcinoma (A549) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2 and Huh7) cell lines. Complexes 1 and 2 were found to be most efficient against the cell line Huh7 with IC₅₀ value of 2.56 and 9.90 μM, respectively, while they exhibit moderate activity towards cell lines A549 and HepG2, as evidenced from IC₅₀ values in the range 27.98-56.99 μM. Complex 3∙MeOH is less efficient towards all the three cell lines with relatively high IC₅₀ values. The mechanisms of the metallocomplexes killing the aforementioned cells were elucidated by flow cytometry, colony formation and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis of apoptosis related expression of the genes. The results of the cytotoxic effects and antitumor activity on different cell lines are affected by the metal nature and the presence of the coordinated halide.

Lipoproteins-Nanocarriers as a Promising Approach for Targeting Liver Cancer: Present Status and Application Prospects

The prevalence of liver cancer is increasing over the years and it is the fifth leading cause of mortality worldwide. The intrusive features and burden of low survival rate make it a global health issue in both developing and developed countries. The recommended chemotherapy drugs for patients in the intermediate and advanced stages of various liver cancers yield a low response rate due to the nonspecific nature of drug delivery, thus warranting the search for new therapeutic strategies and potential drug delivery carriers. There are several new drug delivery methods available to ferry the targeted molecules to the specific biological environment. In recent years, the nano assembly of lipoprotein moieties (lipidic nanoparticles) has emerged as a promising and efficiently tailored drug delivery system in liver cancer treatment. This increased precision of nano lipoproteins conjugates in chemotherapeutic targeting offers new avenues for the treatment of liver cancer with high specificity and efficiency. This present review is focused on concisely outlining the knowledge of liver cancer diagnosis, existing treatment strategies, lipoproteins, their preparation, mechanism and their potential application in the treatment of liver cancer.

Chemerin Isoform-Specific Effects on Hepatocyte Migration and Immune Cell Inflammation

Murine chemerin is C-terminally processed to the bioactive isoforms, muChem-156 and muChem-155, among which the longer variant protects from hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the role of muChem-155 is mostly unknown. Here, we aimed to compare the effects of these isoforms on the proliferation, migration and the secretome of the human hepatocyte cell lines HepG2 and Huh7 and the murine Hepa1-6 cell line. Therefore, huChem-157 and -156 were overexpressed in the human cells, and the respective murine variants, muChem-156 and -155, in the murine hepatocytes. Both chemerin isoforms produced by HepG2 and Hepa1-6 cells activated the chemerin receptors chemokine-like receptor 1 (CMKLR1) and G protein-coupled receptor 1 (GPR1). HuChem-157 was the active isoform in the Huh7 cell culture medium. The potencies of muChem-155 and muChem-156 to activate human GPR1 and mouse CMKLR1 were equivalent. Human CMKLR1 was most responsive to muChem-156. Chemerin variants showed no effect on cell viability and proliferation. Activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases Erk1/2 and p38, and protein levels of the epithelial–mesenchymal transition marker, E-cadherin, were not regulated by the chemerin variants. Migration was reduced in HepG2 and Hepa1-6 cells by the longer isoform. Protective effects of chemerin in HCC include the modulation of cytokines but huChem-156 and huChem-157 overexpression did not change IL-8, CCL20 or osteopontin in the hepatocytes. The conditioned medium of the transfected hepatocytes failed to alter these soluble factors in the cell culture medium of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Interestingly, the cell culture medium of Huh7 cells producing the inactive variant huChem-155 reduced CCL2 and IL-8 in PBMCs. To sum up, huChem-157 and muChem-156 inhibited hepatocyte migration and may protect from HCC metastasis. HuChem-155 was the only human isoform exerting anti-inflammatory effects on immune cells.

Human amniotic membrane conditioned medium inhibits proliferation and modulates related microRNAs expression in hepatocarcinoma cells

The placental stem cells have called the focus of attention for their therapeutic potential to treat different diseases, including cancer. There is plenty evidence about the antiproliferative, antiangiogenic and proapoptotic properties of the amniotic membrane. Liver cancer is the fifth cause of cancer in the world, with a poor prognosis and survival. Alternative treatments to radio- or chemotherapy have been searched. In this work we aimed to study the antiproliferative properties of the human amniotic membrane conditioned medium (AM-CM) in hepatocarcinoma cells. In addition, we have analyzed the regulation of pro and antiOncomiRs expression involved in hepatocarcinoma physiology. We have determined by ³H-thymidine incorporation assay that AM-CM inhibits DNA synthesis in HepG2 cells after 72 h of treatment. AM-CM pure or diluted at 50% and 25% also diminished HepG2 and HuH-7 cells viability and cell number. Furthermore, AM-CM induced cell cycle arrest in G2/M. When proliferation mechanisms were analyzed we found that AM-CM reduced the expression of both Cyclin D1 mRNA and protein. Nuclear expression of Ki-67 was also reduced. We observed that this CM was able to promote the expression of p53 and p21 mRNA and proteins, leading to cell growth arrest. Moreover, AM-CM induced an increase in nuclear p21 localization, observed by immunofluorescence. As p53 levels were increased, Mdm-2 expression was downregulated. Interestingly, HepG2 and HuH-7 cells treatment with AM-CM during 24 and 72 h produced an upregulation of antiOncomiRs 15a and 210, and a downregulation of proOncomiRs 206 and 145. We provide new evidence about the promising novel applications of human amniotic membrane in liver cancer.

The MAP3K7-mTOR Axis Promotes the Proliferation and Malignancy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

Targeted therapy is currently limited for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) due to the lack of suitable targets. Kinases play pivotal roles in many cellular biological processes, whereas dysregulation of kinases may lead to various diseases, particularly cancer. However, the role of kinases in HCC malignancy remains unclear. In this study, we employed a kinome small interfering RNA (siRNA) library, comprising 710 kinase-related genes, to screen whether any kinases were essential for cell proliferation in various HCC cell lines. Through a kinome siRNA library screening, we found that MAP3K7 was a crucial gene for HCC cell proliferation. Pharmacological or genetic ablation of MAP3K7 diminished the growth, migration, and invasion of HCC cells, including primary HCC cells. Stable knockdown of MAP3K7 attenuated tumor formation in a spheroid cell culture model and tumor xenograft mouse model. In addition, silencing MAP3K7 reduced the phosphorylation and expression of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in HCC cells. MAP3K7 expression was positively correlated with mTOR expression in tumors of patients with HCC. Higher co-expression of MAP3K7 and mTOR was significantly associated with poor prognosis of HCC. Taken together, our results revealed that the MAP3K7-mTOR axis might promote tumorigenesis and malignancy, which provides a potential marker or therapeutic target for HCC patients.

ASPP2 enhances chemotherapeutic sensitivity through the down-regulation of XIAP expression in a p53 independent manner in hepatocellular carcinoma

Apoptosis stimulated protein of p53-2 (ASPP2) induces the transcription of p53-targeted genes to stimulates its pro-apoptosis function. The poor chemotherapeutic sensitivity is associated with the decreased ASPP2 expression in many human cancers. Here, multiple genes real-time RT-PCR array and western blotting analysis show that ASPP2 suppress the expression of X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP), determinant of chemoresistance in cancer, in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in a p53-independent manner. Further experiments with ASPP2-rAd and ASPP2-Lv confirmed that ASPP2 enhanced sensitivity of sorafenib to HCC via suppressing XIAP expression. XIAP mainly found on the cytoplasm and perinuclear areas of ASPP2 over-expressed HepG2 cells, while both cytoplasm and nucleus in ASPP2 shut down HepG2 cells. The association of poor sensitivity of sorafenib and XIAP expression was also found both in ASPP2 shut down and overexpress mice, where liver tissue with decreased or increased ASPP2 displayed less or more apoptosis, respectively. Finally, ASPP2 and XIAP expression analyzed in 43 hepatocellular carcinoma tumors and 44 adjacent normal tissues from 38 hepatocellular carcinoma patients for fully understand their expression within HCC patients. Compared with the tumor tissues, ASPP2 mRNA levels were increased, and XIAP levels decreased in the adjacent normal tissues. Taken together, XIAP suppressed ASPP2 increased tumor sensitivity to chemotherapy in a p53-independent manner, which was associated with chemotherapy resistance, suggesting that p53 activation and XIAP suppression were two independent ways that ASPP2 enhance the sensitivity of chemotherapy.

Isolation of 4,4'-bond secalonic acid D from the marine-derived fungus Penicillium oxalicum with inhibitory property against hepatocellular carcinoma

4,4'-bond secalonic acid D (4,4'-SAD) is a known compound isolated from the marine-derived fungus Penicillium oxalicum. No study about the antitumor effect of this compound has been reported, except for a few focusing on its bactericidal properties. Herein, we performed an in vitro biology test and found that 4,4'-SAD stimulated the apoptosis of tumor cells in the human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines PLC/PRF/5 and HuH-7 by activating caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9, PARP, p53, and cyclin B1, as well as by regulating the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. In vivo studies showed that 4,4'-SAD had antitumor efficacy in H22 cell xenograft model. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that 4,4'-SAD could regulate Bax expression, which is a biomarker of tumor growth. In summary, 4,4'-SAD significantly inhibited tumor growth both in vivo and in vitro.

Enhancing the Anticancer Activity of Antrodia cinnamomea in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells via Cocultivation With Ginger: The Impact on Cancer Cell Survival Pathways

Antrodia cinnamomea (AC) is a medicinal fungal species that has been widely used traditionally in Taiwan for the treatment of diverse health-related conditions including cancer. It possesses potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties in addition to its ability to promote cancer cell death in several human tumors. Our aim was to improve the anticancer activity of AC in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) through its cocultivation with ginger aiming at tuning the active ingredients. HCC cell lines, Huh-7 and HepG2 were used to study the in vitro anticancer activity of the ethanolic extracts of AC (EAC) alone or after the cocultivation in presence of ginger (EACG). The results indicated that the cocultivation of AC with ginger significantly induced the production of important triterpenoids and EACG was significantly more potent than EAC in targeting HCC cell lines. EACG effectively inhibited cancer cells growth via the induction of cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and induction of apoptosis in Huh-7 and HepG2 cells as indicated by MTT assay, cell cycle analysis, Annexin V assay, and the activation of caspase-3. In addition, EACG modulated cyclin proteins expression and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways in favor of the inhibition of cancer cell survival. Taken together, the current study highlights an evidence that EACG is superior to EAC in targeting cancer cell survival and inducing apoptotic cell death in HCC. These findings support that EACG formula can serve as a potential candidate for HCC adjuvant therapy.

Current and Future Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: An Updated Comprehensive Review

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is among the leading causes of cancer-related mortality. The principal treatment is surgical resection or liver transplantation, depending on whether the patient is a suitable transplant candidate. However, in most patients with HCC the diagnosis is often late, thereby excluding the patients from definitive surgical resection. Medical treatment includes sorafenib, which is the most commonly used systemic therapy; although, it has been shown to only minimally impact patient survival by several months. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are generally ineffective. Due to the poor prognosis of patients with HCC, newer treatments are needed with several being in development, either in pre-clinical or clinical studies. In this review article, we provide an update on the current and future medical and surgical management of HCC.

Butyrate, a dietary fiber derivative that improves irinotecan effect in colon cancer cells

A diet rich in fiber is associated with a low risk of developing colorectal cancer. Dietary fiber fermentation by intestinal microflora results in the production of butyrate, which has been reported as a chemopreventive agent and a histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi). Irinotecan is used as second-line treatment and induces adverse effects with serious life-threatening toxicities in at least 36% of patients. Our study intends to find a synergy that could improve the efficacy and decrease the toxicity of chemotherapy. Results demonstrate that milimolar concentrations of butyrate has an anti-proliferative effect in all three colon cancer cell lines under study, leading to a decrease on cell viability, expression of P21, P53 and β-catenin, being able to modulate P-glycoprotein activity and to induce apoptosis by modulation of BAX/BCL-2 ratio. Combined therapy has a cytotoxic potential, resulting in a synergistic effect, and allows a reduction in irinotecan concentration needed to reduce IC₅₀. This potential was verified in terms of cell viability and death, cell cycle and expression of P21 and P53. Butyrate and irinotecan act synergistically in the three cancer cell lines, despite the different genetic background and location, and inhibited tumor growth in a xenograft model. Butyrate is able to influence the mechanism of LS1034 cell line chemoresistance. Butyrate in combination with chemotherapeutic agents has an important role for the treatment of colorectal cancer. Such understanding can guide decisions about which patients with colorectal cancer may benefit from therapy with butyrate demonstrating the important role of diet in colorectal cancer treatment.

Silencing of solute carrier family 13 member 5 disrupts energy homeostasis and inhibits proliferation of human hepatocarcinoma cells

The solute carrier family 13 member 5 (SLC13A5), a sodium-coupled citrate transporter, plays a key role in importing citrate from the circulation into liver cells. Recent evidence has revealed that SLC13A5 deletion protects mice from high-fat diet-induced hepatic steatosis and that mutation of the SLC13A5 orthologues in Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans promotes longevity. However, despite the emerging importance of SLC13A5 in energy homeostasis, whether perturbation of SLC13A5 affects the metabolism and malignancy of hepatocellular carcinoma is unknown. Here, we sought to determine whether SLC13A5 regulates hepatic energy homeostasis and proliferation of hepatoma cells. RNAi-mediated silencing of SLC13A5 expression in two human hepatoma cell lines, HepG2 and Huh7, profoundly suppressed cell proliferation and colony formation, and induced cell cycle arrest accompanied by increased expression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 and decreased expression of cyclin B1. Furthermore, such suppressive effects were also observed on the growth of HepG2 cell-derived xenografts expressing SLC13A5-shRNA in nude mice. Metabolically, knockdown of SLC13A5 in HepG2 and Huh7 cells was associated with a decrease in intracellular levels of citrate, the ratio of ATP/ADP, phospholipid content, and ATP citrate lyase expression. Moreover, both in vitro and in vivo assays demonstrated that SLC13A5 depletion promotes activation of the AMP-activated protein kinase, which was accompanied by deactivation of oncogenic mechanistic target of rapamycin signaling. Together, our findings expand the role of SLC13A5 from facilitating hepatic energy homeostasis to influencing hepatoma cell proliferation and suggest a potential role of SLC13A5 in the progression of human hepatocellular carcinoma.

Hyperthermia enhances 17-DMAG efficacy in hepatocellular carcinoma cells with aggravated DNA damage and impaired G2/M transition

Due to the lack of effective treatment, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the malignancies with low survival rates worldwide. Combination of hyperthermia and chemotherapy has shown promising results in several abdominal tumours, but high expression of HSP90 in tumours attenuated the efficacy of hyperthermia. Thus a combination of hyperthermia and inhibition of HSP90 might be a feasible therapeutic strategy for HCC. One hepatic cell line (L02) and two HCC cell lines (Huh7 and HepG2) were heated at 42 °C for 0, 0.5 or 4 h with or without 100 nM 17-dimethylaminoethylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin (17-DMAG). HCC cells of the combination group exhibited more G2/M arrest and higher apoptotic rates which might result from suffering from more reactive oxygen species and serious DNA damage. Heat shock/17-DMAG co-treatment of HCC cells also destabilized CDK1, Cyclin B1 and CDC25C with a concomitant decreased proportion of cells in the M phase. Furthermore, co-treatment impaired the interaction of HSP90α with CDC37 and with CDK1, accompanied with decreased soluble CDK1. Combination of 17-DMAG with a 1.5-h whole body hyperthermia treatment attenuated tumour growth in xenograft mice models. These results suggest hyperthermia sensitize HCC to 17-DMAG, and combination of hyperthermia with 17-DMAG might be a potential therapeutic strategy for HCC.

Targeting Hepatocellular Carcinoma: What did we Discover so Far?

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is increasingly considered an issue of global importance. Its rates of incidence and mortality have been markedly increasing over the last decades. Among risk factors, some should be highlighted, namely the infections by hepatitis B and C virus, as well as clinical cases of cirrhosis. HCC is characterized as asymptomatic disease in the initial stages which most often leads to a late diagnosis. At molecular and genetic level HCC represents a highly complex tumor entity, including a wide variety of mutations, thus accounting for different mechanisms of resistance towards therapeutic approaches. In particular, mutations of the TP53 gene, as well as a deregulation between the expression of pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins of the BCL-2 family are observed. Regarding treatment modalities, surgical procedures offer the best chance of cure, however, due to a late diagnosis, most of concerned patients cannot be subjected to them. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are also ineffective, and currently, the treatment with sorafenib is the most commonly used systemic therapy although it can only increase the patient survival for some months. In this sense, a quick and accurate investigation is of utmost importance in order to develop ways of early diagnosis as well as new therapies for HCC.

p53 signaling is involved in leptin-induced growth of hepatic and breast cancer cells

Leptin, an adipokine predominantly produced from adipose tissue, is well known to induce tumor growth. However, underlying molecular mechanisms are not established yet. While p53 has long been well recognized as a potent tumor suppressor gene, accumulating evidence has also indicated its potential role in growth and survival of cancer cells depending on experimental environments. In the present study, we examined if p53 signaling is implicated in leptin-induced growth of cancer cells. Herein, we demonstrated that leptin treatment significantly increased p53 protein expression in both hepatic (HepG2) and breast (MCF-7) cancer cells without significant effect on mRNA expression. Enhanced p53 expression by leptin was mediated via modulation of ubiquitination, in particular ubiquitin specific protease 2 (USP2)-dependent manner. Furthermore, gene silencing of p53 by small interfering RNA (siRNA) suppressed leptin-induced growth of hepatic and breast cancer cells, indicating the role of p53 signaling in tumor growth by leptin. In addition, we also showed that knockdown of p53 restored suppression of caspase-3 activity by leptin through modulating Bax expression and prevented leptin-induced cell cycle progression, implying the involvement of p53 signaling in the regulation of both apoptosis and cell cycle progression in cancer cells treated with leptin. Taken together, the results in the present study demonstrated the potential role of p53 signaling in leptin-induced tumor growth.

Cytotoxic effect of levoglucosenone and related derivatives against human hepatocarcinoma cell lines

Levoglucosenone has been used as template for the synthesis of a wide variety of compounds with an impressive structural variability. However, scarce work has been done regarding the generation of new bioactive entities. Here we report the cytotoxic effect of levoglucosenone and some related derivatives against hepatocarcinoma cell lines. Compounds were obtained in only one synthetic step and one of them showed an activity within the range of IC50 values of cisplatin, a frequently administered chemotherapy drug.

Oxidative Stress, DNA, Cell Cycle/Cell Cycle Associated Proteins and Multidrug Resistance Proteins: Targets of Human Amniotic Membrane in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

The anticancer effects of human amniotic membrane (hAM) have been studied over the last decade. However, the action mechanisms responsible for these effects are not fully understood until now. Previously results reported by our team proved that hAM is able to induce cytotoxicity and cell death in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a worldwide high incident and mortal cancer. Therefore, this experimental study aimed to investigate the cellular targets of hAM protein extracts (hAMPE) in HCC through in vitro studies. Our results showed that hAMPE is able to modify oxidative stress environment in all HCC cell lines, as well as its cell cycle. hAMPE differently targets deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), P21, P53, β-catenin and multidrug resistance (MDR) proteins in HCC cell lines. In conclusion, hAMPE has several targets in HCC, being clear that the success of this treatment depends of a personalized therapy based on the biological and genetic characteristics of the tumor.

New Approach for Treatment of Primary Liver Tumors: The Role of Quercetin

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver tumor (PLT), with cholangiocarcinoma (CC) being the second most frequent. Glucose transporter 1 (GLUT-1) expression is increased in PLTs and therefore it is suggested as a therapeutic target. Flavonoids, like quercetin, are GLUT-1 competitive inhibitors and may be considered as potential therapeutic agents for PLTs. The objective of this study was evaluation of quercetin anticancer activity in three human HCC cell lines (HepG2, HuH7, and Hep3B2.1-7) and in a human CC cell line (TFK-1). The possible synergistic effect between quercetin and sorafenib, a nonspecific multikinase inhibitor used in clinical practice in patients with advanced HCC, was also evaluated. It was found that in all the cell lines, quercetin induced inhibition of the metabolic activity and cell death by apoptosis, followed by increase in BAX/BCL-2 ratio. Treatment with quercetin caused DNA damage in HepG2, Hep3B2.1-7, and TFK-1 cell lines. The effect of quercetin appears to be independent of P53. Incubation with quercetin induced an increase in GLUT-1 membrane expression and a consequent reduction in the cytoplasmic fraction, observed as a decrease in (18)F-FDG uptake, indicating a GLUT-1 competitive inhibition. The occurrence of synergy when sorafenib and quercetin were added simultaneously to HCC cell lines was noticed. Thus, the use of quercetin seems to be a promising approach for PLTs through GLUT-1 competitive inhibition.

Synergistic inhibition of autophagy and neddylation pathways as a novel therapeutic approach for targeting liver cancer

Liver cancer is the second-most frequent cause of cancer death in the world and is highly treatment resistant. We reported previously that inhibition of neddylation pathway with specific NAE inhibitor MLN4924, suppressed the malignant phenotypes of liver cancer. However, during the process, MLN4924 induces pro-survival autophagy as a mechanism of drug resistance. Here, we report that blockage of autophagy with clinically-available autophagy inhibitors (e.g. chloroquine) significantly enhanced the efficacy of MLN4924 on liver cancer cells by triggering apoptosis. Mechanistically, chloroquine enhanced MLN4924-induced up-regulation of pro-apoptotic proteins (e.g. NOXA) and down-regulation of anti-apoptotic proteins. Importantly, the down-regulation of NOXA expression via siRNA silencing substantially attenuated apoptosis of liver cancer cells. Further mechanistic studies revealed that blockage of autophagy augmented MLN4924-induced DNA damage and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. The elimination of DNA damage or blockage of ROS production significantly reduced the expression of NOXA, and thereby attenuated apoptosis and reduced growth inhibition of liver cancer cells. Moreover, blockage of autophagy enhanced the efficacy of MLN4924 in an orthotopic model of human liver cancer, with induction of NOXA and apoptosis in tumor tissues. These findings provide important preclinical evidence for clinical investigation of synergistic inhibition of neddylation and autophagy in liver cancer.

Chloroquine inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma cell growth in vitro and in vivo

Recently, chloroquine (CQ) has been widely used to improve the efficacy of different chemotherapy drugs to treat tumors. However, the effects of single treatment of CQ on liver cancer have not been investigated. In the present study, we examined the effects of CQ on the growth and viability of liver cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, and revealed that CQ treatment triggered G0/G1 cell cycle arrest, induced DNA damage and apoptosis in a dose- and time-dependent manner in liver cancer cells. Moreover, administration of CQ to tumor-bearing mice suppressed the tumor growth in an orthotopic xenograft model of liver cancer. These findings extend our understanding and suggest that CQ could be repositioned as a treatment option for liver cancer as a single treatment or in combination.

Selective cytotoxicity and cell death induced by human amniotic membrane in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has a worldwide high incidence and mortality. For this reason, it is essential to invest in new therapies for this type of cancer. Our team already proved that human amniotic membrane (hAM) is able to inhibit the metabolic activity of several human cancer cell lines, including HCC cell lines. Taking into account the previously performed work, this experimental study aimed to investigate the pathways by which hAM protein extracts (hAMPEs) act on HCC. Our results showed that hAMPE reduce the metabolic activity, protein content and DNA content in a dose- and time-dependent manner in all HCC cell lines. This therapy presents selective cytotoxicity, since it was not able to inhibit a non-tumorigenic human cell line. In addition, hAMPE induced cell morphology alterations in all HCC cell lines, but death type is cell line dependent, as proved by in vitro and in vivo studies. In conclusion, hAMPE have a promising role in HCC therapy, since it is capable of inducing HCC cytotoxicity and cell death.

Fluorine-18 Fluorodeoxyglucose Uptake in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Correlation with Glucose Transporters and p53 Expression

INTRODUCTION

Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) is one of most lethal cancers worldwide. The prognosis is very poor and therapeutic options are limited. The aim of this study was to determine the correlation of the [(18)F]FDG uptake profile of three HCC cell lines with p53 and glucose transporters (GLUTs) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 12 expression and with the glucose level present in the cell culture medium.

METHODS

Cell lines used are HepG2 (wp53), HuH7 (overexpress p53) and Hep3B2.1-7 (p53null). An immunocytochemical analysis was performed to evaluate p53 expression. Through uptake studies were analyzed the [(18)F]FDG uptake profiles of all cell lines under study. The expression of GLUTs were quantified by flow cytometry. The [(18)F]FDG uptake studies GLUTs expression analysis were performed on cells that grew in a high and low glucose medium in order to determine the effect of glucose concentration on GLUTs expression and on [(18)F]FDG uptake.

RESULTS

Immunocytochemical analysis confirmed the p53 expression profiles of all cell lines. It was found out that for all cell lines, [(18)F]FDG uptake is higher when cells grow in low glucose medium, however, the glucose level doesn't affect mostly the GLUTs expression. The Hep3B2.1-7 (p53null) is always the one that have higher [(18)F]FDG uptake. It was found that not always GLUT1 and GLUT3 are the most expressed by these cell lines.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results shown that the p53 expression influences [(18)F]FDG uptake. This suggests that [(18)F]FDG may be used in HCC diagnosis, and may even provide some information about the genetic profile of the tumor.

Artesunate induces apoptosis via a ROS-independent and Bax-mediated intrinsic pathway in HepG2 cells

This study aims to explore the detail molecular mechanism by which artesunate (ARS), an artemisinin derivative, induces apoptosis in HepG2 cells. ARS induced a loss of mitochondrial transmemberane potential (ΔΨm), phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization, as well as activations of Bax/Bak and caspases indicative of apoptosis induction. Silencing Bax but not Bak significantly inhibited ARS-induced apoptosis, demonstrating the key role of the Bax-mediated intrinsic pathway. Although ARS increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), ARS-induced apoptosis was neither prevented by pretreatment with ROS scavengers nor potentiated by pretreatment with l-buthionine-sulfoximine (BSO) that enhanced the ARS-induced intracellular ROS generation, demonstrating that ROS was not involved in ARS-induced apoptosis. In addition, ARS did not induce Bid translocation to mitochondria, and the cytotoxicity of ARS was not prevented by silencing Bim, Puma or Mcl-1, but was significantly enhanced by HA14-1 pretreatment, demonstrating that Bcl-2/-xl instead of Bid and Bim as well as Puma may be the upstream factor to regulate the Bax-mediated intrinsic pathway. Collectively, our data demonstrate that ARS induces ROS-independent apoptosis via the Bax-mediated intrinsic pathway in HepG2 cells.

Evaluation of the selenotranscriptome expression in two hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of liver cancer and is still one of the most fatal cancers. Hence, it needs to identify always new putative markers to improve its diagnosis and prognosis. Since the selenium is able to fight the oxidative damage which is one of the major origins of cell damage as well as cancer, we have recently focused our attention on selenoprotein family and their involvement in HCC. In the present paper we have carried out a global analysis of the selenotranscriptome expression in HepG2 and Huh7 cells compared to the normal human hepatocytes by reverse transcription-qPCR (RT-qPCR). Our data showed that in both cells there are three downregulated (DIO1, DIO2, and SELO) and ten upregulated (GPX4, GPX7, SELK, SELM, SELN, SELT, SELV, SEP15, SEPW1, and TrxR1) genes. Additionally, interactomic studies were carried out to evaluate the ability of these down- and upregulated genes to interact between them as well as to identify putative HUB nodes representing the centers of correlation able to exercise a direct control over the coordinated genes.

Positron emission tomography diagnostic imaging in multidrug-resistant hepatocellular carcinoma: focus on 2-deoxy-2-(18F)Fluoro-D-Glucose

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most lethal cancers worldwide. Surgical resection and liver transplantation are still the best options for treatment. Nevertheless, as the number of patients who may benefit from these therapies is limited, alternative therapies have been developed, including chemotherapy. However, partly due to the expression of multidrug resistance (MDR) proteins, it has been found that HCC is a highly chemoresistant tumor. The major family of MDR proteins is the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily, which includes P-glycoprotein (Pgp) and MDR-associated protein 1 (MRP1). Positron emission tomography using the radiolabeled analog of glucose, 2-deoxy-2-((18)F)fluoro-D-glucose ([(18)F]FDG), has been used in diagnostic imaging of various types of tumors. Clinical studies are inconsistent but experimental studies have shown that [(18)F]FDG uptake is associated with tumor grade and is inversely proportional to Pgp expression in HCC. These studies unveil that [(18)F]FDG can be a substrate of Pgp, although that relationship remains unclear. This review sums up the relationship between MDR expression in HCC, and [(18)F]FDG uptake by tumor cells, showing that this radiopharmaceutical may provide a useful tool for the study of chemoresistance in HCC, and that the use of this marker may contribute to the therapeutic choice on this highly aggressive tumor.

Combination of interventional adenovirus-p53 introduction and ultrasonic irradiation in the treatment of liver cancer

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of the combination of interventional adenovirus-p53 (Ad-p53) introduction and ultrasonic irradiation (CIAIUI) treatment for liver cancer, including evaluating the Ad-p53 transfection efficiency and the impact of the p53 gene on vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and matrix metalloprotein 2 (MMP2) protein expression levels. Ad-p53 was arterially infused into the hepatic carcinoma via the interventional introduction of the hepatic tumor-bearing artery (IIHTBA) or the CIAIUI. Serum VEGF levels were determined by performing an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; immunohistochemical analysis was used to identify the expression levels of intratumoral p53, MMP2 and VEGF; and western blot analysis was used to determine the impact of different Ad-p53 administration methods on the expression of wild-type p53. The wild-type p53 expression level was significantly higher in the p53-treated group compared with the control group, and the p53 expression level in the CIAIUI group was significantly higher compared with the non-irradiation group. The CIAIUI could significantly reduce the serum VEGF levels. The two delivery methods caused a reduction in the intratumoral VEGF and MMP2 expression levels, and the effects of CIAIUI were most obvious. Ad-p53 infusion via IIHTBA promoted the protein expression levels of p53, however, it inhibited the protein expression levels of MMP2 and VEGF, indirectly indicating that the gene may inhibit the growth of liver cancer. Therefore, CIAIUI therapy exhibited an overall improved therapeutic effect compared with the more simple IIHTBA therapy.

Berberine suppresses Id-1 expression and inhibits the growth and development of lung metastases in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is an invasive cancer with a high rate of recurrence and metastasis. Agents with anti-proliferative as well as anti-metastatic activity will be ideal for effective treatment. Here, we demonstrated that berberine, an isoquinoline alkaloid, harbored potent anti-metastatic and anti-proliferative activities in vivo. Using an orthotopic model of HCC (MHCC-97L), which spontaneously develops lung metastases (one of the most common sites of HCC metastasis), we found that berberine treatment (10mg/kg/2days) significantly reduced lung metastasis from the liver tumors by ~85% (quantitated by bioluminescence emitted from lung metastases). Histological examination also confirmed the reduced incidence and number of lung metastases in berberine-treated mice. Furthermore, berberine effectively suppressed extra-tumor invasion of the primary HCC implant into the surrounding normal liver tissue, illustrating its potent anti-metastatic action in vivo. Consistent with previous reports in other cancer, berberine's anti-tumor activity was accompanied by suppression of cellular proliferation, invasiveness and HIF-1α/VEGF signaling. Strikingly, further mechanistic investigation revealed that berberine exerted profound inhibitory effect on the expression of Id-1, which is a key regulator for HCC development and metastasis. Berberine could suppress the transcription level of Id-1 through inhibiting its promotor activity. Specific downregulation of Id-1 by knocking down its RNA transcripts in HCC cells inhibited cellular growth, invasion and VEGF secretion, demonstrating the functional relevance of Id-1 downregulation induced by berberine. Lastly, berberine's anti-proliferative and anti-invasive activities could be partially rescued by Id-1 overexpression in HCC models, revealing a novel anti-cancer/anti-invasive mechanism of berberine via Id-1 suppression.

Liver cancer cells: targeting and prolonged-release drug carriers consisting of mesoporous silica nanoparticles and alginate microspheres

A new microsphere consisting of inorganic mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) and organic alginate (denoted as MSN@Alg) was successfully synthesized by air-dynamic atomization and applied to the intracellular drug delivery systems (DDS) of liver cancer cells with sustained release and specific targeting properties. MSN@Alg microspheres have the advantages of MSN and alginate, where MSN provides a large surface area for high drug loading and alginate provides excellent biocompatibility and COOH functionality for specific targeting. Rhodamine 6G was used as a model drug, and the sustained release behavior of the rhodamine 6G-loaded MSN@Alg microspheres can be prolonged up to 20 days. For targeting therapy, the anticancer drug doxorubicin was loaded into MSN@Alg microspheres, and the (lysine)4-tyrosine-arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (K₄YRGD) peptide was functionalized onto the surface of MSN@Alg for targeting liver cancer cells, hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2). The results of the 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and confocal laser scanning microscopy indicate that the MSN@Alg microspheres were successfully uptaken by HepG2 without apparent cytotoxicity. In addition, the intracellular drug delivery efficiency was greatly enhanced (ie, 3.5-fold) for the arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD)-labeled, doxorubicin-loaded MSN@Alg drug delivery system compared with the non-RGD case. The synthesized MSN@Alg microspheres show great potential as drug vehicles with high biocompatibility, sustained release, and targeting features for future intracellular DDS.

Apoptotic effects of dipyrido [3,2-a:2',3'-c] phenazine (dppz) Au(III) complex against diethylnitrosamine/phenobarbital induced experimental hepatocarcinogenesis in rats

We evaluated the effects of dipyrido [3,2-a:2',3'-c] phenazine (dppz) Au(III) complex ([Au(dppz)Cl2]Cl) on apoptosis during chemically induced hepatocellular carcinoma. 48 male Spraque-Dawley rats were divided into six groups; group I (control), group II [Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)], group III ([Au(dppz)Cl2]Cl), group IV [diethylnitrosamine + Phenobabital (DEN + PB)], group V (DEN + PB + [Au(dppz)Cl2]Cl (2nd week)), and group VI (DEN + PB + [Au(dppz)Cl2]Cl (7th week). The rats in groups IV through VI were administrated with DEN in a single dose of intraperitoneal 175 mg/kg. After 2 weeks of DEN administration, these groups of rats were given daily PB in a dose of 500 ppm. In group V, after two weeks of DEN administration, [Au(dppz)Cl2]Cl complex (2 mg/kg) was given once a week by intraperitoneal injection. In the group VI, the rats were given a dose of 2 mg/kg [Au(dppz)Cl2]Cl complex once a week, 7 weeks after DEN administration. At the end of the study, blood and tissue samples were collected from the rats to determine levels of serum AST, ALT, and LDH, and caspase 3, p53, Bax, Bcl-2 and DNA fragmentation in liver. AST, ALT, LDH, and Bcl-2 levels were higher in group IV, compared to group I, but caspase 3 and p53 levels were lower. In group V, caspase 3, p53, Bax, and DNA fragmentation levels were higher than those of group IV. Caspase 3 and p53 levels increased in group VI compared with group IV. In conclusion, [Au(dppz)Cl2]Cl complex induced apoptosis by elevating levels of caspase 3, p53, Bax, and DNA fragmentation.