Increased protein kinase C and isozyme redistribution in pressure-overload cardiac hypertrophy in the rat

PGRMC2 is a pressure-volume regulator critical for myocardial responses to stress in mice

Progesterone receptors are classified into nuclear and membrane-bound receptor families. Previous unbiased proteomic studies indicate a potential association between cardiac diseases and the progesterone receptor membrane-bound component-2 (PGRMC2); however, the role of PGRMC2 in the heart remains unknown. In this study, we use a heart-specific knockout (KO) mouse model (MyH6•Pgrmc2flox/flox) in which the Pgrmc2 gene was selectively deleted in cardiomyocytes. Here we show that PGRMC2 serves as a mediator of steroid hormones for rapid calcium signaling in cardiomyocytes to maintain cardiac contraction, sufficient stroke volume, and adequate cardiac output by regulating the cardiac pressure-volume relationship. The KO hearts from male and female mice exhibit an impairment in pressure-volume relationship. Under hypoxic conditions, this pressure-volume dysregulation progresses to congestive left and right ventricular failure in the KO hearts. Overall, we propose that PGRMC2 is a cardiac pressure-volume regulator to maintain normal cardiac physiology, especially during hypoxic stress.

Biosensor-based profiling to track cellular signalling in patient-derived models of dilated cardiomyopathy

Dilated cardiomyopathies (DCM) represent a diverse group of cardiovascular diseases impacting the structure and function of the myocardium. To better treat these diseases, we need to understand the impact of such cardiomyopathies on critical signalling pathways that drive disease progression downstream of receptors we often target therapeutically. Our understanding of cellular signalling events has progressed substantially in the last few years, in large part due to the design, validation and use of biosensor-based approaches to studying such events in cells, tissues and in some cases, living animals. Another transformative development has been the use of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) to generate disease-relevant models from individual patients. We highlight the importance of going beyond monocellular cultures to incorporate the influence of paracrine signalling mediators. Finally, we discuss the recent coalition of these approaches in the context of DCM. We discuss recent work in generating patient-derived models of cardiomyopathies and the utility of using signalling biosensors to track disease progression and test potential therapeutic strategies that can be later used to inform treatment options in patients.

B-arrestin-2 Signaling Is Important to Preserve Cardiac Function During Aging

Experiments reported here tested the hypothesis that β-arrestin-2 is an important element in the preservation of cardiac function during aging. We tested this hypothesis by aging β-arrestin-2 knock-out (KO) mice, and wild-type equivalent (WT) to 12-16months. We developed the rationale for these experiments on the basis that angiotensin II (ang II) signaling at ang II receptor type 1 (AT1R), which is a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) promotes both G-protein signaling as well as β-arrestin-2 signaling. β-arrestin-2 participates in GPCR desensitization, internalization, but also acts as a scaffold for adaptive signal transduction that may occur independently or in parallel to G-protein signaling. We have previously reported that biased ligands acting at the AT1R promote β-arrestin-2 signaling increasing cardiac contractility and reducing maladaptations in a mouse model of dilated cardiomyopathy. Although there is evidence that ang II induces maladaptive senescence in the cardiovascular system, a role for β-arrestin-2 signaling has not been studied in aging. By echocardiography, we found that compared to controls aged KO mice exhibited enlarged left atria and left ventricular diameters as well as depressed contractility parameters with preserved ejection fraction. Aged KO also exhibited depressed relaxation parameters when compared to WT controls at the same age. Moreover, cardiac dysfunction in aged KO mice was correlated with alterations in the phosphorylation of myofilament proteins, such as cardiac myosin binding protein-C, and myosin regulatory light chain. Our evidence provides novel insights into a role for β-arrestin-2 as an important signaling mechanism that preserves cardiac function during aging.

The cardio and renoprotective role of ginseng against epinephrine-induced myocardial infarction in rats: Involvement of angiotensin II type 1 receptor/protein kinase C

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Epinephrine induced MI with renal complication through Nrf2/NF-κB imbalance and PKC/AT1R.

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Ginseng abolished ECG changes induced by epinephrine and stimulated Nrf2.

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Ginseng reduced upregulation of PKC, NF-κB, and AT1R induced by epinephrine.

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Ginseng inhibited iNOS and corrected renal disorder in epinephrine model of MI.

The expression of angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1 receptor)/protein kinase C (PKC) in heart tissues has a vital role in myocardial infarction (MI). The current work aimed to clarify the renal complication enhanced by MI following epinephrine injection via AT1 receptor/ PKC expression; in addition, the impact of ginseng extract on epinephrine-induced MI and its renal complication was assessed. Adult male albino Wistar rats were pretreated orally with ginseng extract (200 & 400 mg/kg/day) for 14 days, then two successive doses of epinephrine injection (100 mg/kg, i.p.). Epinephrine evoked electrocardiographic (ECG) and renal changes accompanied with a significant increase in heart and kidney contents of malodialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), protein kinase C (PKC), heart contents of nuclear factor-kabba B (NF-κB) and angiotensin 1receptor (AT1R), as well as a decrease in heart and kidney reduced glutathione (GSH) and nuclear factor-erythroid-related factor 2 (Nrf2) contents. In histopathological investigations epinephrine exhibited deleterious heart changes in the form of acute MI with the presence of necrosis of cardiomyocytes with iNOS expression and produced glomerulus and renal tubules degeneration. Pretreatment of rats with ginseng extract in both doses significantly corrected epinephrine-induced heart and renal changes. The current work revealed that epinephrine-induced MI associated with aggravated renal complication and ginseng extract has cardio and reno protective role against this as it reduces infarct size, preserves cardiac and renal tissues and functions through activating Nrf2 and down-regulating NF-κB, PKC, AT1R and iNOS.

Pharmacological Protein Kinase C Modulators Reveal a Pro-hypertrophic Role for Novel Protein Kinase C Isoforms in Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes

Background: Hypertrophy of cardiomyocytes (CMs) is initially a compensatory mechanism to cardiac overload, but when prolonged, it leads to maladaptive myocardial remodeling, impairing cardiac function and causing heart failure. A key signaling molecule involved in cardiac hypertrophy is protein kinase C (PKC). However, the role of different PKC isoforms in mediating the hypertrophic response remains controversial. Both classical (cPKC) and novel (nPKC) isoforms have been suggested to play a critical role in rodents, whereas the role of PKC in hypertrophy of human CMs remains to be determined. Here, we aimed to investigate the effects of two different types of PKC activators, the isophthalate derivative HMI-1b11 and bryostatin-1, on CM hypertrophy and to elucidate the role of cPKCs and nPKCs in endothelin-1 (ET-1)-induced hypertrophy in vitro.

Methods and Results: We used neonatal rat ventricular myocytes (NRVMs) and human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) to study the effects of pharmacological PKC modulators and ET-1. We used quantitative reverse transcription PCR to quantify hypertrophic gene expression and high-content analysis (HCA) to investigate CM morphology. In both cell types, ET-1, PKC activation (bryostatin-1 and HMI-1b11) and inhibition of cPKCs (Gö6976) increased hypertrophic gene expression. In NRVMs, these treatments also induced a hypertrophic phenotype as measured by increased recognition, intensity and area of α-actinin and F-actin fibers. Inhibition of all PKC isoforms with Gö6983 inhibited PKC agonist-induced hypertrophy, but could not fully block ET-1-induced hypertrophy. The mitogen-activated kinase kinase 1/2 inhibitor U0126 inhibited PKC agonist-induced hypertrophy fully and ET-1-induced hypertrophy partially. While ET-1 induced a clear increase in the percentage of pro-B-type natriuretic peptide-positive hiPSC-CMs, none of the phenotypic parameters used in HCA directly correlated with gene expression changes or with phenotypic changes observed in NRVMs.

Conclusion: This work shows similar hypertrophic responses to PKC modulators in NRVMs and hiPSC-CMs. Pharmacological PKC activation induces CM hypertrophy via activation of novel PKC isoforms. This pro-hypertrophic effect of PKC activators should be considered when developing PKC-targeted compounds for e.g. cancer or Alzheimer’s disease. Furthermore, this study provides further evidence on distinct PKC-independent mechanisms of ET-1-induced hypertrophy both in NRVMs and hiPSC-CMs.

Protein kinase C and cardiac dysfunction: a review

Heart failure (HF) is a physiological state in which cardiac output is insufficient to meet the needs of the body. It is a clinical syndrome characterized by impaired ability of the left ventricle to either fill or eject blood efficiently. HF is a disease of multiple aetiologies leading to progressive cardiac dysfunction and it is the leading cause of deaths in both developed and developing countries. HF is responsible for about 73,000 deaths in the UK each year. In the USA, HF affects 5.8 million people and 550,000 new cases are diagnosed annually. Cardiac remodelling (CD), which plays an important role in pathogenesis of HF, is viewed as stress response to an index event such as myocardial ischaemia or imposition of mechanical load leading to a series of structural and functional changes in the viable myocardium. Protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes are a family of serine/threonine kinases. PKC is a central enzyme in the regulation of growth, hypertrophy, and mediators of signal transduction pathways. In response to circulating hormones, activation of PKC triggers a multitude of intracellular events influencing multiple physiological processes in the heart, including heart rate, contraction, and relaxation. Recent research implicates PKC activation in the pathophysiology of a number of cardiovascular disease states. Few reports are available that examine PKC in normal and diseased human hearts. This review describes the structure, functions, and distribution of PKCs in the healthy and diseased heart with emphasis on the human heart and, also importantly, their regulation in heart failure.

Protein Kinase C Inhibition With Ruboxistaurin Increases Contractility and Reduces Heart Size in a Swine Model of Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction

Inotropic support is often required to stabilize the hemodynamics of patients with acute decompensated heart failure; while efficacious, it has a history of leading to lethal arrhythmias and/or exacerbating contractile and energetic insufficiencies. Novel therapeutics that can improve contractility independent of beta-adrenergic and protein kinase A-regulated signaling, should be therapeutically beneficial. This study demonstrates that acute protein kinase C-α/β inhibition, with ruboxistaurin at 3 months' post-myocardial infarction, significantly increases contractility and reduces the end-diastolic/end-systolic volumes, documenting beneficial remodeling. These data suggest that ruboxistaurin represents a potential novel therapeutic for heart failure patients, as a moderate inotrope or therapeutic, which leads to beneficial ventricular remodeling.

Propofol induces excessive vasodilation of aortic rings by inhibiting protein kinase Cβ2 and θ in spontaneously hypertensive rats

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Exaggerated hypotension following administration of propofol is strongly predicted in patients with hypertension. Increased PKCs play a crucial role in regulating vascular tone. We studied whether propofol induces vasodilation by inhibiting increased PKC activity in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) and, if so, whether contractile Ca²⁺ sensitization pathways and filamentous-globular (F/G) actin dynamics were involved.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Rings of thoracic aorta, denuded of endothelium, from normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats and SHR were prepared for functional studies. Expression and activity of PKCs in vascular smooth muscle (VSM) cells were determined by Western blot analysis and elisa respectively. Phosphorylation of the key proteins in PKC Ca²⁺ sensitization pathways was also examined. Actin polymerization was evaluated by differential centrifugation to probe G- and F-actin content.

KEY RESULTS

Basal expression and activity of PKCβ2 and PKCθ were increased in aortic VSMs of SHR, compared with those from WKY rats. Vasorelaxation of SHR aortas by propofol was markedly attenuated by LY333531 (a specific PKCβ inhibitor) or the PKCθ pseudo-substrate inhibitor. Furthermore, noradrenaline-enhanced phosphorylation, and the translocation of PKCβ2 and PKCθ, was inhibited by propofol, with decreased actin polymerization and PKCβ2-mediated Ca²⁺ sensitization pathway in SHR aortas.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Propofol suppressed increased PKCβ2 and PKCθ activity, which was partly responsible for exaggerated vasodilation in SHR. This suppression results in inhibition of actin polymerization, as well as that of the PKCβ2- but not PKCθ-mediated, Ca²⁺ sensitization pathway. These data provide a novel explanation for the unwanted side effects of propofol.

Myofibrillar Z-discs Are a Protein Phosphorylation Hot Spot with Protein Kinase C (PKCα) Modulating Protein Dynamics

The Z-disc is a protein-rich structure critically important for the development and integrity of myofibrils, which are the contractile organelles of cross-striated muscle cells. We here used mouse C2C12 myoblast, which were differentiated into myotubes, followed by electrical pulse stimulation (EPS) to generate contracting myotubes comprising mature Z-discs. Using a quantitative proteomics approach, we found significant changes in the relative abundance of 387 proteins in myoblasts versus differentiated myotubes, reflecting the drastic phenotypic conversion of these cells during myogenesis. Interestingly, EPS of differentiated myotubes to induce Z-disc assembly and maturation resulted in increased levels of proteins involved in ATP synthesis, presumably to fulfill the higher energy demand of contracting myotubes. Because an important role of the Z-disc for signal integration and transduction was recently suggested, its precise phosphorylation landscape further warranted in-depth analysis. We therefore established, by global phosphoproteomics of EPS-treated contracting myotubes, a comprehensive site-resolved protein phosphorylation map of the Z-disc and found that it is a phosphorylation hotspot in skeletal myocytes, underscoring its functions in signaling and disease-related processes. In an illustrative fashion, we analyzed the actin-binding multiadaptor protein filamin C (FLNc), which is essential for Z-disc assembly and maintenance, and found that PKCα phosphorylation at distinct serine residues in its hinge 2 region prevents its cleavage at an adjacent tyrosine residue by calpain 1. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments indicated that this phosphorylation modulates FLNc dynamics. Moreover, FLNc lacking the cleaved Ig-like domain 24 exhibited remarkably fast kinetics and exceedingly high mobility. Our data set provides research community resource for further identification of kinase-mediated changes in myofibrillar protein interactions, kinetics, and mobility that will greatly advance our understanding of Z-disc dynamics and signaling.

Chronic high-fat diet-induced obesity decreased survival and increased hypertrophy of rats with experimental eccentric hypertrophy from chronic aortic regurgitation

Background

The composition of a diet can influence myocardial metabolism and development of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH). The impact of a high-fat diet in chronic left ventricular volume overload (VO) causing eccentric LVH is unknown. This study examined the effects of chronic ingestion of a high-fat diet in rats with chronic VO caused by severe aortic valve regurgitation (AR) on LVH, function and on myocardial energetics and survival.

Methods

Male Wistar rats were divided in four groups: Shams on control or high-fat (HF) diet (15 rats/group) and AR rats fed with the same diets (ARC (n = 56) and ARHF (n = 32)). HF diet was started one week before AR induction and the protocol was stopped 30 weeks later.

Results

As expected, AR caused significant LV dilation and hypertrophy and this was exacerbated in the ARHF group. Moreover, survival in the ARHF group was significantly decreased compared the ARC group. Although the sham animals on HF also developed significant obesity compared to those on control diet, this was not associated with heart hypertrophy. The HF diet in AR rats partially countered the expected shift in myocardial energy substrate preference usually observed in heart hypertrophy (from fatty acids towards glucose). Systolic function was decreased in AR rats but HF diet had no impact on this parameter. The response to HF diet of different fatty acid oxidation markers as well as the increase in glucose transporter-4 translocation to the plasma membrane compared to ARC was blunted in AR animals compared to those on control diet.

Conclusions

HF diet for 30 weeks decreased survival of AR rats and worsened eccentric hypertrophy without affecting systolic function. The expected adaptation of myocardial energetics to volume-overload left ventricle hypertrophy in AR animals seemed to be impaired by the high-fat diet suggesting less metabolic flexibility.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2261-14-123) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cardiac phosphoproteomics during remote ischemic preconditioning: a role for the sarcomeric Z-disk proteins

Remote ischemic preconditioning (RIPC) induced by brief ischemia/reperfusion cycles of remote organ (e.g., limb) is cardioprotective. The myocardial cellular changes during RIPC responsible for this phenomenon are not currently known. The aim of this work was to identify the activation by phosphorylation of cardiac proteins following RIPC. To achieve our aim we used isobaric tandem mass tagging (TMT) and reverse phase nanoliquid chromatography tandem spectrometry using a Linear Trap Quadropole (LTQ) Orbitrap Velos mass spectrometer. Male C57/Bl6 mice were anesthetized by an intraperitoneal injection of Tribromoethanol. A cuff was placed around the hind limb and inflated at 200 mmHg to prevent blood flow as confirmed by Laser Doppler Flowmetry. RIPC was induced by 4 cycles of 5 min of limb ischemia followed by 5 min of reperfusion. Hearts were extracted for phosphoproteomics. We identified approximately 30 phosphoproteins that were differentially expressed in response to RIPC protocol. The levels of several phosphoproteins in the Z-disk of the sarcomere including phospho-myozenin-2 were significantly higher than control. This study describes and validates a novel approach to monitor the changes in the cardiac phosphoproteome following the cardioprotective intervention of RIPC and prior to index ischemia. The increased level of phosphorylated sarcomeric proteins suggests they may have a role in cardiac signaling during RIPC.

Protein Kinase C Inhibitors as Modulators of Vascular Function and their Application in Vascular Disease

Blood pressure (BP) is regulated by multiple neuronal, hormonal, renal and vascular control mechanisms. Changes in signaling mechanisms in the endothelium, vascular smooth muscle (VSM) and extracellular matrix cause alterations in vascular tone and blood vessel remodeling and may lead to persistent increases in vascular resistance and hypertension (HTN). In VSM, activation of surface receptors by vasoconstrictor stimuli causes an increase in intracellular free Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]i), which forms a complex with calmodulin, activates myosin light chain (MLC) kinase and leads to MLC phosphorylation, actin-myosin interaction and VSM contraction. Vasoconstrictor agonists could also increase the production of diacylglycerol which activates protein kinase C (PKC). PKC is a family of Ca(2+)-dependent and Ca(2+)-independent isozymes that have different distributions in various blood vessels, and undergo translocation from the cytosol to the plasma membrane, cytoskeleton or the nucleus during cell activation. In VSM, PKC translocation to the cell surface may trigger a cascade of biochemical events leading to activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and MAPK kinase (MEK), a pathway that ultimately increases the myofilament force sensitivity to [Ca(2+)]i, and enhances actin-myosin interaction and VSM contraction. PKC translocation to the nucleus may induce transactivation of various genes and promote VSM growth and proliferation. PKC could also affect endothelium-derived relaxing and contracting factors as well as matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs) in the extracellular matrix further affecting vascular reactivity and remodeling. In addition to vasoactive factors, reactive oxygen species, inflammatory cytokines and other metabolic factors could affect PKC activity. Increased PKC expression and activity have been observed in vascular disease and in certain forms of experimental and human HTN. Targeting of vascular PKC using PKC inhibitors may function in concert with antioxidants, MMP inhibitors and cytokine antagonists to reduce VSM hyperactivity in certain forms of HTN that do not respond to Ca(2+) channel blockers.

Agonist activated PKCβII translocation and modulation of cardiac myocyte contractile function

Elevated protein kinase C β_II (PKCβ_II) expression develops during heart failure and yet the role of this isoform in modulating contractile function remains controversial. The present study examines the impact of agonist-induced PKCβ_II activation on contractile function in adult cardiac myocytes. Diminished contractile function develops in response to low dose phenylephrine (PHE, 100 nM) in controls, while function is preserved in response to PHE in PKCβ_II-expressing myocytes. PHE also caused PKCβ_II translocation and a punctate distribution pattern in myocytes expressing this isoform. The preserved contractile function and translocation responses to PHE are blocked by the inhibitor, LY379196 (30 nM) in PKCβ_II-expressing myocytes. Further analysis showed downstream protein kinase D (PKD) phosphorylation and phosphatase activation are associated with the LY379196-sensitive contractile response. PHE also triggered a complex pattern of end-target phosphorylation in PKCβ_II-expressing myocytes. These patterns are consistent with bifurcated activation of downstream signaling activity by PKCβ_II.

Ablation of the cardiac-specific gene leucine-rich repeat containing 10 (Lrrc10) results in dilated cardiomyopathy

Leucine-rich repeat containing 10 (LRRC10) is a cardiac-specific protein exclusively expressed in embryonic and adult cardiomyocytes. However, the role of LRRC10 in mammalian cardiac physiology remains unknown. To determine if LRRC10 is critical for cardiac function, Lrrc10-null (Lrrc10^−/−) mice were analyzed. Lrrc10^−/− mice exhibit prenatal systolic dysfunction and dilated cardiomyopathy in postnatal life. Importantly, Lrrc10^−/− mice have diminished cardiac performance in utero, prior to ventricular dilation observed in young adults. We demonstrate that LRRC10 endogenously interacts with α-actinin and α-actin in the heart and all actin isoforms in vitro. Gene expression profiling of embryonic Lrrc10^−/− hearts identified pathways and transcripts involved in regulation of the actin cytoskeleton to be significantly upregulated, implicating dysregulation of the actin cytoskeleton as an early defective molecular signal in the absence of LRRC10. In contrast, microarray analyses of adult Lrrc10^−/− hearts identified upregulation of oxidative phosphorylation and cardiac muscle contraction pathways during the progression of dilated cardiomyopathy. Analyses of hypertrophic signal transduction pathways indicate increased active forms of Akt and PKCε in adult Lrrc10^−/− hearts. Taken together, our data demonstrate that LRRC10 is essential for proper mammalian cardiac function. We identify Lrrc10 as a novel dilated cardiomyopathy candidate gene and the Lrrc10^−/− mouse model as a unique system to investigate pediatric cardiomyopathy.

Tropomyosin dephosphorylation results in compensated cardiac hypertrophy

Phosphorylation of tropomyosin (Tm) has been shown to vary in mouse models of cardiac hypertrophy. Little is known about the in vivo role of Tm phosphorylation. This study examines the consequences of Tm dephosphorylation in the murine heart. Transgenic (TG) mice were generated with cardiac specific expression of α-Tm with serine 283, the phosphorylation site of Tm, mutated to alanine. Echocardiographic analysis and cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area measurements show that α-Tm S283A TG mice exhibit a hypertrophic phenotype at basal levels. Interestingly, there are no alterations in cardiac function, myofilament calcium (Ca(2+)) sensitivity, cooperativity, or response to β-adrenergic stimulus. Studies of Ca(2+) handling proteins show significant increases in sarcoplasmic reticulum ATPase (SERCA2a) protein expression and an increase in phospholamban phosphorylation at serine 16, similar to hearts under exercise training. Compared with controls, the decrease in phosphorylation of α-Tm results in greater functional defects in TG animals stressed by transaortic constriction to induce pressure overload-hypertrophy. This is the first study to investigate the in vivo role of Tm dephosphorylation under both normal and cardiac stress conditions, documenting a role for Tm dephosphorylation in the maintenance of a compensated or physiological phenotype. Collectively, these results suggest that modification of the Tm phosphorylation status in the heart, depending upon the cardiac state/condition, may modulate the development of cardiac hypertrophy.

Diversity of the protein kinase C gene family Implications for cardiovascular disease

All eukaryotic cells are capable of responding to a changing intracellular environment and to extracellular stimuli. These functional responses are highly regulated by diverse means; one of the most common mechanisms of regulation requires the covalent phosphorylation of intracellular proteins, which when phosphorylated, mediate many functional events. The general class of enzymes that catalyzes the phosphorylation of effectors (substrates), the protein kinases, may be divided into two broad categories, depending on whether they phosphorylate serine and threonine residues or tyrosine residues. Evidence has accumulated that implicates abnormal activation of protein kinase C (PKC), which is one family of serine-threonine protein kinases, in cells and tissues from patients or models of cardiovascular disease. In this review, we present the molecular and biochemical basis for the diversity of the PKC family, and briefly summarize the evidence that PKC is implicated in cardiovascular pathology and the potential therapeutic implications and approaches.

Formation, contraction, and mechanotransduction of myofribrils in cardiac development: clues from genetics

Congenital heart disease (CHD) is the most common birth defect in humans. It is a leading infant mortality factor worldwide, caused by defective cardiac development. Mutations in transcription factors, signalling and structural molecules have been shown to contribute to the genetic component of CHD. Recently, mutations in genes encoding myofibrillar proteins expressed in the embryonic heart have also emerged as an important genetic causative factor of the disease, which implies that the contraction of the early heart primordium contributes to its morphogenesis. This notion is supported by increasing evidence suggesting that not only contraction but also formation, mechanosensing, and mechanotransduction of the cardiac myofibrillar proteins influence heart development. In this paper, we summarize the genetic clues supporting this idea.

PKCβII modulation of myocyte contractile performance

Significant up-regulation of the protein kinase Cβ(II) (PKCβ(II)) develops during heart failure and yet divergent functional outcomes are reported in animal models. The goal here is to investigate PKCβ(II) modulation of contractile function and gain insights into downstream targets in adult cardiac myocytes. Increased PKCβ(II) protein expression and phosphorylation developed after gene transfer into adult myocytes while expression remained undetectable in controls. The PKCβ(II) was distributed in a peri-nuclear pattern and this expression resulted in diminished rates and amplitude of shortening and re-lengthening compared to controls and myocytes expressing dominant negative PKCβ(II) (PKCβDN). Similar decreases were observed in the Ca(2+) transient and the Ca(2+) decay rate slowed in response to caffeine in PKCβ(II)-expressing myocytes. Parallel phosphorylation studies indicated PKCβ(II) targets phosphatase activity to reduce phospholamban (PLB) phosphorylation at residue Thr17 (pThr17-PLB). The PKCβ inhibitor, LY379196 (LY) restored pThr17-PLB to control levels. In contrast, myofilament protein phosphorylation was enhanced by PKCβ(II) expression, and individually, LY and the phosphatase inhibitor, calyculin A each failed to block this response. Further work showed PKCβ(II) increased Ca(2+)-activated, calmodulin-dependent kinase IIδ (CaMKIIδ) expression and enhanced both CaMKIIδ and protein kinase D (PKD) phosphorylation. Phosphorylation of both signaling targets also was resistant to acute inhibition by LY. These later results provide evidence PKCβ(II) modulates contractile function via intermediate downstream pathway(s) in cardiac myocytes.

Protein kinase C depresses cardiac myocyte power output and attenuates myofilament responses induced by protein kinase A

Following activation by G-protein-coupled receptor agonists, protein kinase C (PKC) modulates cardiac myocyte function by phosphorylation of intracellular targets including myofilament proteins cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and cardiac myosin binding protein C (cMyBP-C). Since PKC phosphorylation has been shown to decrease myofibril ATPase activity, we hypothesized that PKC phosphorylation of cTnI and cMyBP-C will lower myocyte power output and, in addition, attenuate the elevation in power in response to protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated phosphorylation. We compared isometric force and power generating capacity of rat skinned cardiac myocytes before and after treatment with the catalytic subunit of PKC. PKC increased phosphorylation levels of cMyBP-C and cTnI and decreased both maximal Ca(2+) activated force and Ca(2+) sensitivity of force. Moreover, during submaximal Ca(2+) activations PKC decreased power output by 62 %, which arose from both the fall in force and slower loaded shortening velocities since depressed power persisted even when force levels were matched before and after PKC. In addition, PKC blunted the phosphorylation of cTnI by PKA, reduced PKA-induced spontaneous oscillatory contractions, and diminished PKA-mediated elevations in myocyte power. To test whether altered thin filament function plays an essential role in these contractile changes we investigated the effects of chronic cTnI pseudo-phosphorylation on myofilament function using myocyte preparations from transgenic animals in which either only PKA phosphorylation sites (Ser-23/Ser-24) (PP) or both PKA and PKC phosphorylation sites (Ser-23/Ser-24/Ser-43/Ser-45/T-144) (All-P) were replaced with aspartic acid. Cardiac myocytes from All-P transgenic mice exhibited reductions in maximal force, Ca(2+) sensitivity of force, and power. Similarly diminished power generating capacity was observed in hearts from All-P mice as determined by in situ pressure-volume measurements. These results imply that PKC-mediated phosphorylation of cTnI plays a dominant role in depressing contractility, and, thus, increased PKC isozyme activity may contribute to maladaptive behavior exhibited during the progression to heart failure.

The sarcomeric Z-disc and Z-discopathies

The sarcomeric Z-disc defines the lateral borders of the sarcomere and has primarily been seen as a structure important for mechanical stability. This view has changed dramatically within the last one or two decades. A multitude of novel Z-disc proteins and their interacting partners have been identified, which has led to the identification of additional functions and which have now been assigned to this structure. This includes its importance for intracellular signalling, for mechanosensation and mechanotransduction in particular, an emerging importance for protein turnover and autophagy, as well as its molecular links to the t-tubular system and the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Moreover, the discovery of mutations in a wide variety of Z-disc proteins, which lead to perturbations of several of the above-mentioned systems, gives rise to a diverse group of diseases which can be termed Z-discopathies. This paper provides a brief overview of these novel aspects as well as points to future research directions.

Inhibition of PKCα/β with ruboxistaurin antagonizes heart failure in pigs after myocardial infarction injury

RATIONALE

Protein kinase Cα (PKCα) activity and protein level are induced during cardiac disease where it controls myocardial contractility and propensity to heart failure in mice and rats. For example, mice lacking the gene for PKCα have enhanced cardiac contractility and reduced susceptibility to heart failure after long-term pressure overload or after myocardial infarction injury. Pharmacological inhibition of PKCα/β with Ro-32-0432, Ro-31-8220 or ruboxistaurin (LY333531) similarly enhances cardiac function and antagonizes heart failure in multiple models of disease in both mice and rats.

OBJECTIVE

Large and small mammals differ in several key indexes of heart function and biochemistry, lending uncertainty as to how PKCα/β inhibition might affect or protect a large animal model of heart failure.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We demonstrate that ruboxistaurin administration to a pig model of myocardial infarction-induced heart failure was protective. Twenty-kilogram pigs underwent left anterior descending artery occlusion resulting in myocardial infarctions and were then divided into vehicle or ruboxistaurin feed groups, after which they were monitored monthly for the next 3 months. Ruboxistaurin administered pigs showed significantly better recovery of myocardial contractility 3 months after infarction injury, greater ejection fraction, and greater cardiac output compared with vehicle-treated pigs.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide additional evidence in a large animal model of disease that PKCα/β inhibition (with ruboxistaurin) represents a tenable and novel therapeutic approach for treating human heart failure.

Protein kinase Cα as a heart failure therapeutic target

Heart failure afflicts ~5 million people and causes ~300,000 deaths a year in the United States alone. Heart failure is defined as a deficiency in the ability of the heart to pump sufficient blood in response to systemic demands, which results in fatigue, dyspnea, and/or edema. Identifying new therapeutic targets is a major focus of current research in the field. We and others have identified critical roles for protein kinase C (PKC) family members in programming aspects of heart failure pathogenesis. More specifically, mechanistic data have emerged over the past 6-7 years that directly implicate PKCα, a conventional PKC family member, as a nodal regulator of heart failure propensity. Indeed, deletion of the PKCα gene in mice, or its inhibition in rodents with drugs or a dominant negative mutant and/or inhibitory peptide, has shown dramatic protective effects that antagonize the development of heart failure. This review will weigh all the evidence implicating PKCα as a novel therapeutic target to consider for the treatment of heart failure. This article is part of a special issue entitled "Key Signaling Molecules in Hypertrophy and Heart Failure."

PKC-delta and PKC-epsilon: foes of the same family or strangers?

Protein kinase C (PKC) is a family of 10 serine/threonine kinases divided into 3 subfamilies, classical, novel and atypical classes. Two PKC isozymes of the novel group, PKCε and PKCδ, have different and sometimes opposite effects. PKCε stimulates cell growth and differentiation while PKCδ is apoptotic. In the heart, they are among the most expressed PKC isozymes and they are opposed in the preconditioning process with a positive role of PKCε and an inhibiting role of PKCδ. The goal of this review is to analyze the structural differences of these 2 enzymes that may explain their different behaviors and properties.

β-adrenergic blockade attenuates cardiac dysfunction and myofibrillar remodelling in congestive heart failure

Although β-adrenoceptor (β-AR) blockade is an important mode of therapy for congestive heart failure (CHF), subcellular mechanisms associated with its beneficial effects are not clear. Three weeks after inducing myocardial infarction (MI), rats were treated daily with or without 20 and 75 mg/kg atenolol, a selective β₁-AR antagonist, or propranolol, a non-selective β-AR antagonist, for 5 weeks. Sham operated rats served as controls. All animals were assessed haemodynamically and echocardiographically and the left ventricle (LV) was processed for the determination of myofibrillar ATPase activity, α- and β-myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms and gene expression as well as cardiac troponin I (cTnI) phosphorylation. Both atenolol and propranolol at 20 and 75 mg/kg doses attenuated cardiac hypertrophy and lung congestion in addition to increasing LV ejection fraction and LV systolic pressure as well as decreasing heart rate, LV end-diastolic pressure and LV diameters in the infarcted animals. Treatment of infarcted animals with these agents also attenuated the MI-induced depression in myofibrillar Ca²⁺-stimulated ATPase activity and phosphorylated cTnI protein content. The MI-induced decrease in α-MHC and increase in β-MHC protein content were attenuated by both atenolol and propranolol at low and high doses; however, only high dose of propranolol was effective in mitigating changes in the gene expression for α-MHC and β-MHC. Our results suggest that improvement of cardiac function by β-AR blockade in CHF may be associated with attenuation of myofibrillar remodelling.

Cardiac Z-disc signaling network

During the last 15 years, the perception of the cardiac z-disc has undergone substantial changes. Initially viewed as a structural component at the lateral boundaries of the sarcomere, the cardiac z-disc has increasingly become recognized as a nodal point in cardiomyocyte signal transduction and disease. This minireview thus focuses on novel components and recent developments in z-disc biology and their role in cardiac signaling and disease.

Disruption of adenylyl cyclase type V does not rescue the phenotype of cardiac-specific overexpression of Galphaq protein-induced cardiomyopathy

Adenylyl cyclase (AC) is the principal effector molecule in the β-adrenergic receptor pathway. AC(V) and AC(VI) are the two predominant isoforms in mammalian cardiac myocytes. The disparate roles among AC isoforms in cardiac hypertrophy and progression to heart failure have been under intense investigation. Specifically, the salutary effects resulting from the disruption of AC(V) have been established in multiple models of cardiomyopathy. It has been proposed that a continual activation of AC(V) through elevated levels of protein kinase C could play an integral role in mediating a hypertrophic response leading to progressive heart failure. Elevated protein kinase C is a common finding in heart failure and was demonstrated in murine cardiomyopathy from cardiac-specific overexpression of G(αq) protein. Here we assessed whether the disruption of AC(V) expression can improve cardiac function, limit electrophysiological remodeling, or improve survival in the G(αq) mouse model of heart failure. We directly tested the effects of gene-targeted disruption of AC(V) in transgenic mice with cardiac-specific overexpression of G(αq) protein using multiple techniques to assess the survival, cardiac function, as well as structural and electrical remodeling. Surprisingly, in contrast to other models of cardiomyopathy, AC(V) disruption did not improve survival or cardiac function, limit cardiac chamber dilation, halt hypertrophy, or prevent electrical remodeling in G(αq) transgenic mice. In conclusion, unlike other established models of cardiomyopathy, disrupting AC(V) expression in the G(αq) mouse model is insufficient to overcome several parallel pathophysiological processes leading to progressive heart failure.

Protein kinase C epsilon-dependent extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 phosphorylation and nuclear translocation involved in cardiomyocyte hypertrophy with angiotensin II stimulation

Angiotensin II (Ang II) plays a critical role in hypertrophy of cardiomyocytes; however, the molecular mechanism, especially the signaling cascades, in cardiomyocytes remains unclear. In the present study, we examined the mechanism of Ang II in hypertrophy of cardiomyocytes. Ang II rapidly stimulated phosphorylation of protein kinase C epsilon (PKCepsilon) in a time- and dose-dependent manner via Ang II receptor-1 (AT(1)). Furthermore, Ang II-induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5) phosphorylation and translocation was mediated through a signal pathway that involves AT(1) and PKCepsilon, which resulted in transcriptional activation of myocyte enhancer factor-2C (MEF2C) and hypertrophy. Consequently, inhibiting PKCepsilon or ERK5 by small interfering RNA (siRNA) significantly attenuated Ang II-induced MEF2C activation and hypertrophy of rat cardiomyocytes. These data provide evidence that PKCepsilon-dependent ERK5 phosphorylation and nucleocytoplasmic traffic mediates Ang II-induced MEF2C activation and cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. PKCepsilon and ERK5 may be potential targets in the treatment of pathological vascular hypertrophy associated with the enhanced renin-angiotensin system.

Protein Kinases as Drug Development Targets for Heart Disease Therapy

Protein kinases are intimately integrated in different signal transduction pathways for the regulation of cardiac function in both health and disease. Protein kinase A (PKA), Ca²⁺-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK), protein kinase C (PKC), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) are not only involved in the control of subcellular activities for maintaining cardiac function, but also participate in the development of cardiac dysfunction in cardiac hypertrophy, diabetic cardiomyopathy, myocardial infarction, and heart failure. Although all these kinases serve as signal transducing proteins by phosphorylating different sites in cardiomyocytes, some of their effects are cardioprotective whereas others are detrimental. Such opposing effects of each signal transduction pathway seem to depend upon the duration and intensity of stimulus as well as the type of kinase isoform for each kinase. In view of the fact that most of these kinases are activated in heart disease and their inhibition has been shown to improve cardiac function, it is suggested that these kinases form excellent targets for drug development for therapy of heart disease.

Protein kinase C mRNA and protein expressions in hypobaric hypoxia-induced cardiac hypertrophy in rats

AIM

Protein kinase C (PKC), cloned as a serine/threonine kinase, plays key roles in diverse intracellular signalling processes and in cardiovascular remodelling during pressure overload or volume overload. We looked for correlations between changes in PKC isoforms (levels and/or subcellular distributions) and cardiac remodelling during experimental hypobaric hypoxic environment (HHE)-induced pulmonary hypertension.

METHODS

To study the PKC system in the heart during HHE, 148 male Wistar rats were housed for up to 21 days in a chamber at the equivalent of 5500 m altitude level (10% O(2)).

RESULTS

At 14 or more days of exposure to HHE, pulmonary arterial pressure (PAP) was significantly increased. In the right ventricle (RV): (1) the expression of PKC-alpha protein in the cytosolic and membrane fractions was increased at 3-14 days and at 5-7 days of exposure respectively; (ii) the cytosolic expression of PKC-delta protein was increased at 1-5, 14 and 21 days of exposure; (3) the membrane expressions of the proteins were decreased at 14-21 (PKC-betaII), 14-21 (PKC-gamma), and 0.5-5 and 21 (PKC-epsilon) days of exposure; (4) the expression of the active form of PKC-alpha protein on the plasma membrane was increased at 3 days of exposure (based on semiquantitative analysis of the immunohistochemistry). In the left ventricle, the expressions of the PKC mRNAs, and of their cytosolic and membrane proteins, were almost unchanged. The above changes in PKC-alpha, which were strongly evident in the RV, occurred alongside the increase in PAP.

CONCLUSION

PKC-alpha may help to modulate the right ventricular hypertrophy caused by pulmonary hypertension in HHE.

Protein kinase C{alpha}, but not PKC{beta} or PKC{gamma}, regulates contractility and heart failure susceptibility: implications for ruboxistaurin as a novel therapeutic approach

Protein kinase (PK)Calpha, PKCbeta, and PKCgamma comprise the conventional PKC isoform subfamily, which is thought to regulate cardiac disease responsiveness. Indeed, mice lacking the gene for PKCalpha show enhanced cardiac contractility and reduced susceptibility to heart failure. Recent data also suggest that inhibition of conventional PKC isoforms with Ro-32-0432 or Ro-31-8220 enhances heart function and antagonizes failure, although the isoform responsible for these effects is unknown. Here, we investigated mice lacking PKCalpha, PKCbeta, and PKCgamma for effects on cardiac contractility and heart failure susceptibility. PKCalpha(-/-) mice, but not PKCbetagamma(-/-) mice, showed increased cardiac contractility, myocyte cellular contractility, Ca(2+) transients, and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) load. PKCalpha(-/-) mice were less susceptible to heart failure following long-term pressure-overload stimulation or 4 weeks after myocardial infarction injury, whereas PKCbetagamma(-/-) mice showed more severe failure. Infusion of ruboxistaurin (LY333531), an orally available PKCalpha/beta/gamma inhibitor, increased cardiac contractility in wild-type and PKCbetagamma(-/-) mice, but not in PKCalpha(-/-) mice. More importantly, ruboxistaurin prevented death in wild-type mice throughout 10 weeks of pressure-overload stimulation, reduced ventricular dilation, enhanced ventricular performance, reduced fibrosis, and reduced pulmonary edema comparable to or better than metoprolol treatment. Ruboxistaurin was also administered to PKCbetagamma(-/-) mice subjected to pressure overload, resulting in less death and heart failure, implicating PKCalpha as the primary target of this drug in mitigating heart disease. As an aside, PKCalphabetagamma triple-null mice showed no defect in cardiac hypertrophy following pressure-overload stimulation. In conclusion, PKCalpha functions distinctly from PKCbeta and PKCgamma in regulating cardiac contractility and heart failure, and broad-acting PKC inhibitors such as ruboxistaurin could represent a novel therapeutic approach in treating human heart failure.

Protein kinase C in heart failure: a therapeutic target?

Heart failure (HF) afflicts about 5 million people and causes 300,000 deaths a year in the United States alone. An integral part of the pathogenesis of HF is cardiac remodelling, and the signalling events that regulate it are a subject of intense research. Cardiac remodelling is the sum of responses of the heart to causes of HF, such as ischaemia, myocardial infarction, volume and pressure overload, infection, inflammation, and mechanical injury. These responses, including cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, myocardial fibrosis, and inflammation, involve numerous cellular and structural changes and ultimately result in a progressive decline in cardiac performance. Pharmacological and genetic manipulation of cultured heart cells and animal models of HF and the analysis of cardiac samples from patients with HF are all used to identify the molecular and cellular mechanisms leading to the disease. Protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes, a family of serine-threonine protein kinase enzymes, were found to regulate a number of cardiac responses, including those associated with HF. In this review, we describe the PKC isozymes that play critical roles in specific aspects of cardiac remodelling and dysfunction in HF.

Up-regulation of endothelin type B receptors in the human internal mammary artery in culture is dependent on protein kinase C and mitogen-activated kinase signaling pathways

Background

Up-regulation of vascular endothelin type B (ET_B) receptors is implicated in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease. Culture of intact arteries has been shown to induce similar receptor alterations and has therefore been suggested as a suitable method for, ex vivo, in detail delineation of the regulation of endothelin receptors. We hypothesize that mitogen-activated kinases (MAPK) and protein kinase C (PKC) are involved in the regulation of endothelin ET_B receptors in human internal mammary arteries.

Methods

Human internal mammary arteries were obtained during coronary artery bypass graft surgery and were studied before and after 24 hours of organ culture, using in vitro pharmacology, real time PCR and Western blot techniques. Sarafotoxin 6c and endothelin-1 were used to examine the endothelin ET_A and ET_B receptor effects, respectively. The involvement of PKC and MAPK in the endothelin receptor regulation was examined by culture in the presence of antagonists.

Results

The endohtelin-1-induced contraction (after endothelin ET_B receptor desensitization) and the endothelin ET_A receptor mRNA expression levels were not altered by culture. The sarafotoxin 6c contraction, endothelin ET_B receptor protein and mRNA expression levels were increased after organ culture. This increase was antagonized by; (1) PKC inhibitors (10 μM bisindolylmaleimide I and 10 μM Ro-32-0432), and (2) inhibitors of the p38, extracellular signal related kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) and C-jun terminal kinase (JNK) MAPK pathways (10 μM SB203580, 10 μM PD98059 and 10 μM SP600125, respectively).

Conclusion

In conclusion, PKC and MAPK seem to be involved in the up-regulation of endothelin ET_B receptor expression in human internal mammary arteries. Inhibiting these intracellular signal transduction pathways may provide a future therapeutic target for hindering the development of vascular endothelin ET_B receptor changes in cardiovascular disease.

Pharmacological inhibition of epsilon-protein kinase C attenuates cardiac fibrosis and dysfunction in hypertension-induced heart failure

Studies on genetically manipulated mice suggest a role for epsilon-protein kinase C (epsilonPKC) in cardiac hypertrophy and in heart failure. The potential clinical relevance of these findings was tested here using a pharmacological inhibitor of epsilonPKC activity during the progression to heart failure in hypertensive Dahl rats. Dahl rats, fed an 8% high-salt diet from the age of 6 weeks, exhibited compensatory cardiac hypertrophy by 11 weeks, followed by heart failure at approximately 17 weeks and death by the age of approximately 20 weeks (123+/-3 days). Sustained treatment between weeks 11 and 17 with the selective epsilonPKC inhibitor epsilonV1-2 or with an angiotensin II receptor blocker olmesartan prolonged animal survival by approximately 5 weeks (epsilonV1-2: 154+/-7 days; olmesartan: 149+/-5 days). These treatments resulted in improved fractional shortening (epsilonV1-2: 58+/-2%; olmesartan: 53+/-2%; saline: 41+/-6%) and decreased cardiac parenchymal fibrosis when measured at 17 weeks without lowering blood pressure at any time during the treatment. Combined treatment with epsilonV1-2, together with olmesartan, prolonged animal survival by 5 weeks (37 days) relative to olmesartan alone (from 160+/-5 to 197+/-14 days, respectively) and by approximately 11 weeks (74 days) on average relative to saline-treated animals, suggesting that the pathway inhibited by epsilonPKC inhibition is not identical to the olmesartan-induced effect. These data suggest that an epsilonPKC-selective inhibitor such as epsilonV1-2 may have a potential in augmenting current therapeutic strategies for the treatment of heart failure in humans.

PKC isozymes in chronic cardiac disease: possible therapeutic targets?

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the United States. Therefore, identifying therapeutic targets is a major focus of current research. Protein kinase C (PKC), a family of serine/threonine kinases, has been identified as playing a role in many of the pathologies of heart disease. However, the lack of specific PKC regulators and the ubiquitous expression and normal physiological functions of the 11 PKC isozymes has made drug development a challenge. Here we discuss the validity of therapeutically targeting PKC, an intracellular signaling enzyme. We describe PKC structure, function, and distribution in the healthy and diseased heart, as well as the development of rationally designed isozyme-selective regulators of PKC functions. The review focuses on the roles of specific PKC isozymes in atherosclerosis, fibrosis, and cardiac hypertrophy, and examines principles of pharmacology as they pertain to regulators of signaling cascades associated with these diseases.

PKCbeta modulates ischemia-reperfusion injury in the heart

Protein kinase C-betaII (PKCbetaII) is an important modulator of cellular stress responses. To test the hypothesis that PKCbetaII modulates the response to myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury, we subjected mice to occlusion and reperfusion of the left anterior descending coronary artery. Homozygous PKCbeta-null (PKCbeta(-/-)) and wild-type mice fed the PKCbeta inhibitor ruboxistaurin displayed significantly decreased infarct size and enhanced recovery of left ventricular (LV) function and reduced markers of cellular necrosis and serum creatine phosphokinase and lactate dehydrogenase levels compared with wild-type or vehicle-treated animals after 30 min of ischemia followed by 48 h of reperfusion. Our studies revealed that membrane translocation of PKCbetaII in LV tissue was sustained after I/R and that gene deletion or pharmacological blockade of PKCbeta protected ischemic myocardium. Homozygous deletion of PKCbeta significantly diminished phosphorylation of c-Jun NH(2)-terminal mitogen-activated protein kinase and expression of activated caspase-3 in LV tissue of mice subjected to I/R. These data implicate PKCbeta in I/R-mediated myocardial injury, at least in part via phosphorylation of JNK, and suggest that blockade of PKCbeta may represent a potent strategy to protect the vulnerable myocardium.

Altered PKC expression and phosphorylation in response to the nature, direction, and magnitude of mechanical stretch

Protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes have been shown to play a role in mechanotransduction in a variety of cell types. We sought to identify the PKC isozymes involved in transducing mechanical (cyclic vs. static), direction and intensity of stretch by examining changes in protein expression and phosphorylation. We used a 3-dimensional culture system with aligned neonatal rat cardiac myocytes on silastic membranes. Myocytes were subjected to either cyclic stretch at 5 cycles/min or static stretch for a period of 24 h at intensities of 0%, 2.5%, 5%, or 10% of full membrane length. Stretch was applied in perpendicular or parallel directions to myocyte alignment. PKC delta was most sensitive to stretch applied perpendicular to myocyte alignment regardless of the nature of stretch, while phospho PKC delta T505 increased in response to static-perpendicular stretch. PKC epsilon expression was altered by cyclic stretch but not static stretch, while phospho PKC epsilon S719 remained unchanged. PKC alpha expression was not altered by stretch; however, phospho PKC alpha S657 increased in a dose-dependent manner following cyclic-perpendicular stretch. Our results indicate that changes in PKC expression and phosphorylation state may be a mechanism for cardiac myocytes to discriminate between the nature, direction, and intensity of mechanical stretch.

RBCK1, a protein kinase CbetaI (PKCbetaI)-interacting protein, regulates PKCbeta-dependent function

RBCK1 (RBCC protein interacting with PKC 1) has originally been identified as a protein kinase CbetaI (PKCbetaI)-binding partner by a two-hybrid screen and as one of the gene transcripts that increases during adult cardiac hypertrophy. To address whether RBCK1 and PKCbetaI functions are interconnected, we used cultured neonatal myocytes where we previously found that the activity of PKCbetaI is required for an increase in cell size, also called hypertrophy. In this study, we showed that acute treatment of cardiac myocytes with phenylephrine, a prohypertrophic stimulant, transiently increased the association of RBCK1 with PKCbetaI within 1 min. A prolonged phenylephrine treatment also resulted in an increase of the interaction of the two proteins. Endogenous RBCK1 protein levels increased upon phenylephrine-induced hypertrophy. Further, adenovirus-based RBCK1 overexpression in the absence of phenylephrine increased cardiac cell size. This RBCK1-mediated hypertrophy required PKCbeta activity, since the increase in cell size was inhibited when the RBCK1-expressing cells were treated with PKCbeta-selective antagonists, supporting our previous observation that both PKCbetaI and PKCbetaII are required for hypertrophy. Unexpectedly, RBCK1-induced increased cell size was inhibited by phenylephrine. This effect correlated with a decrease in the level of both PKCbeta isoforms. Most importantly, RNA interference for RBCK1 significantly inhibited the increase in cell size of cardiac myocytes following phenylephrine treatment. Our results suggest that RBCK1 binds PKCbetaI and is a key regulator of PKCbetaI function in cells and that, together with PKCbetaII, the three proteins are essential for developmental hypertrophy of cardiac myocytes.

Fosinopril and Carvedilol Reverse Hypertrophy and Change the Levels of Protein Kinase Cɛ and Components of its Signaling Complex

OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate the alterations of Protein Kinase C epsilon (PKC epsilon) and components of its signaling complexes after treatment with fosinopril and carvedilol and analyze potential molecular mechanisms of the two drugs for cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure.

METHODS

Pressure-overload cardiac hypertrophy (POH) was developed in 8-week-old male Sprague Dawley rats by abdominal aortic banding. The rats were divided into three groups at the age of 20 weeks: POH without failure group, reversed POH with drugs group, and POH with failure group on high diet. Western Blot analysis, co-immunoprecipitation and proteomic analysis were performed in ventricular tissues of rat hearts.

RESULTS

Increased PKC epsilon was found during POH. PKC epsilon decreased during transition from POH to heart failure (HF). However, increased PKC epsilon inclined to recover to normal levels after treatment with both drugs. There were differential proteins in PKC epsilon complexes during the different stages of POH. The two significant PKC epsilon-binding proteins, MAD1 and Lyn A, were only present in PKC epsilon complex during reversing POH with drugs.

CONCLUSION

Chronic administration of carvedilol and fosinopril could reverse the development of POH and delay the appearance of HF, partly by regulating PKC epsilon level and its signaling complex. MAD1 and Lyn A may be important proteins participating in the reversing process.

Myofibrillar remodeling in cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure and cardiomyopathies

BACKGROUND

A wide variety of pathological conditions have been shown to result in cardiac remodelling and myocardial dysfunction. However, the mechanisms of transition from adaptive to maladaptive alterations, as well as those for changes in cardiac performance leading to heart failure, are poorly understood.

OBSERVATIONS

Extensive studies have revealed a broad spectrum of progressive changes in subcellular structures and function, as well as in signal transduction and metabolism in the heart, among different cardiovascular disorders. The present review is focused on identifying the alterations in molecular and biochemical structure of myofibrils (myofibrillar remodelling) in hypertrophied and failing myocardium in different types of heart diseases. Numerous changes at the level of gene expression for both contractile and regulatory proteins have already been reported in failing hearts and heart diseases; these changes are potential precursors for heart failure such as cardiac hypertrophy and cardiomyopathies. Myofibrillar remodelling, as a consequence of proteolysis, oxidation, and phosphorylation of some functional groups in both contractile and regulatory proteins in hearts failing due to different etiologies, has also been described.

CONCLUSIONS

Although myofibrillar remodelling appears to be associated with cardiac dysfunction, alterations in both contractile and regulatory proteins are dependent on the type and stage of heart disease.

Control of cardiac myofilament activation and PKC-betaII signaling through the actin capping protein, CapZ

Actin capping protein (CapZ) anchors the barbed ends of sarcomeric actin to the Z-disc. Myofilaments from transgenic mice (TG-CapZ) expressing a reduced amount of CapZ demonstrate altered function and protein kinase C (PKC) signaling [Pyle WG, Hart MC, Cooper JA, Sumandea MP, de Tombe PP, and Solaro RJ., Circ. Res. 90 (2002) 1299-306]. The aims of the current study were to determine the direct effects of CapZ on myofilament function and on PKC signaling to the myofilaments. Our studies compared mechanical properties of single myocytes from TG-CapZ mouse hearts to wild-type myocytes from which CapZ was extracted using PIP(2). We found that myofilaments from CapZ-deficient transgenic myocardium exhibited increased Ca(2+) sensitivity and maximum isometric tension. The extraction of CapZ from wild-type myofilaments replicated the increase in maximum isometric tension, but had no effect on myofilament Ca(2+) sensitivity. Immunoblot analysis revealed that the extraction of CapZ was associated with a reduction in myofilament-associated PKC-beta(II) and that CapZ-deficient transgenic myofilaments also lacked PKC-beta(II). Treatment of wild-type myofilaments with recombinant PKC-beta(II) reduced myofilament Ca(2+) sensitivity, whereas this effect was attenuated in myofilaments from TG-CapZ mice. Our results indicate that cardiac CapZ directly controls maximum isometric tension generation, and establish CapZ as an important component in anchoring PKC-beta(II) at the myofilaments, and for mediating the effects of PKC-beta(II) on myofilament function.

Left ventricular myofilament dysfunction in rat experimental hypertrophy and congestive heart failure

It is currently unclear whether left ventricular (LV) myofilament function is depressed in experimental LV hypertrophy (LVH) or congestive heart failure (CHF). To address this issue, we studied pressure overload-induced LV hypertrophy (POLVH) and myocardial infarction-elicited congestive heart failure (MICHF) in rats. LV myocytes were isolated from control, POLVH, and MICHF hearts by mechanical homogenization, skinned with Triton, and attached to micropipettes that projected from a sensitive force transducer and high-speed motor. A subset of cells was treated with either unphosphorylated, recombinant cardiac troponin (cTn) or cTn purified from either control or failing ventricles. LV myofilament function was characterized by the force-[Ca(2+)] relation yielding Ca(2+)-saturated maximal force (F(max)), myofilament Ca(2+) sensitivity (EC(50)), and cooperativity (Hill coefficient, n(H)) parameters. POLVH was associated with a 35% reduction in F(max) and 36% increase in EC(50). Similarly, MICHF resulted in a 42% reduction in F(max) and a 30% increase in EC(50). Incorporation of recombinant cTn or purified control cTn into failing cells restored myofilament Ca(2+) sensitivity toward levels observed in control cells. In contrast, integration of cTn purified from failing ventricles into control myocytes increased EC(50) to levels observed in failing myocytes. The F(max) parameter was not markedly affected by troponin exchange. cTnI phosphorylation was increased in both POLVH and MICHF left ventricles. We conclude that depressed myofilament Ca(2+) sensitivity in experimental LVH and CHF is due, in part, to a decreased functional role of cTn that likely involves augmented phosphorylation of cTnI.

Subcellular remodeling as a viable target for the treatment of congestive heart failure

It is now well known that congestive heart failure (CHF) is invariably associated with cardiac hypertrophy, and changes in the shape and size of cardiomyocytes (cardiac remodeling) are considered to explain cardiac dysfunction in CHF. However, the mechanisms responsible for the transition of cardiac hypertrophy to heart failure are poorly understood. Several lines of evidence both from various experimental models of CHF and from patients with different types of CHF have indicated that the functions of different subcellular organelles such as extracellular matrix, sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticulum, myofibrils, mitochondria, and nucleus are defective. Subcellular abnormalities for protein contents, gene expression, and enzyme activities in the failing heart become evident as a consequence of prolonged hormonal imbalance, metabolic derangements, and cation maldistribution. In particular, the occurrence of oxidative stress, development of intracellular Ca2+ overload, activation of proteases and phospholipases, and alterations in cardiac gene expression result in changes in the biochemical composition, molecular structure, and function of different subcellular organelles (subcellular remodeling). Not only does subcellular remodeling appear to be intimately involved in the transition of cardiac hypertrophy to heart failure, the mismatching of the function of different subcellular organelles leads to the development of cardiac dysfunction. Although blockade of the renin-angiotensin system, sympathetic nervous system, and various other hormonal actions have been reported to produce beneficial effects on cardiac remodeling and heart dysfunction in CHF, the actions of various cardiac drugs on subcellular remodeling have not been examined extensively. Some recent studies have indicated that both the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor antagonists attenuate changes in sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and myofibril enzyme activities, protein contents, and gene expression, and partly improve cardiac function in the failing hearts. It is suggested that subcellular remodeling is an excellent target for the development of improved drug therapy for CHF. Furthermore, extensive studies should investigate the effects of different agents individually or in combination on reverse subcellular remodeling, cardiac remodeling, and cardiac dysfunction in various experimental models of CHF.

Expression of protein kinase C isoforms in cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure due to volume overload

The present study determined whether changes in the activity and isoforms of protein kinase C (PKC) are associated with cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure owing to volume overload induced by aortocaval shunt (AVS) in rats. A significant increase in Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+-independent PKC activities in the homogenate and particulate fractions, unlike the cystolic fraction, of the hypertrophied left ventricle (LV) were evident at 2 and 4 weeks after inducing the AVS. This increase coincided with increases in PKC-α and PKC-ζ contents at 2 week and increases in PKC-α, PKC-β1, PKC-β2, and PKC-ζ contents at 4 weeks in the hypertrophied LV. By 8 and 16 weeks of AVS, PKC activity and content were unchanged in the failing LV. On the other hand, no increase in the PKC activity or isoform content in the hypertrophied right ventricle (RV) was observed during the 16 weeks of AVS. The content of Gαq was increased in the LV at 2 weeks but then decreased at 16 weeks, whereas Gαq content was increased in RV at 2 and 4 weeks. Our data suggest that an increase in PKC isoform content neither plays an important role during the development of cardiac hypertrophy nor participates in the phase leading to heart failure owing to volume overload.