Stroke Survivors Who Score Below Threshold on Standard Depression Measures May Still Have Negative Cognitions of Concern

Psychological support after stroke: unmet needs and workforce requirements of clinical neuropsychological provision for optimal rehabilitation outcomes

Stroke services must detect and manage psychological and neuropsychological problems that occur after stroke, such as cognitive and language impairments, post-stroke apathy, post-stroke emotionalism, depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, personality changes and suicidality. Stroke neuropsychology plays a key role in the assessment, understanding and management of these consequences of stroke, as well as contributing to complex case management, staff supervision and training. Where these provisions are absent from the stroke rehabilitation pathway, this significantly limits potential rehabilitation outcomes. To manage the scale of psychological and neuropsychological needs post stroke, clinical guidance recommends the use of a matched care system, in which these needs are triaged and matched with corresponding levels of support. Recent workforce guidelines provide clear professional recommendations for psychological staffing skill mix and threshold requirements for clinical oversight and clinical governance assurances.

Depression, Anxiety, and Suicide After Stroke: A Narrative Review of the Best Available Evidence

Depression and anxiety each affect around 1 in 3 people during the first year after a stroke. Suicide causes the death of about 3 to 4/1000 stroke survivors during the first 5 years. This narrative review describes the best available evidence for the epidemiology of depression, anxiety, and suicide; their prevention; and the treatment of anxiety and depression. We conclude with directions for future research.

Suicide in obstructive lung, cardiovascular and oncological disease

Healthcare institutions face increasing demands stemming from the burden of noncommunicable diseases. The personal, social, financial and societal impact of these diseases are well-documented. However, the mental health concerns and trajectories of patients afflicted by chronic medical diseases have been under-recognized and are under-resourced. Despite that chronic diseases are associated with substantially increased risk of suicide, the medical world has largely failed to properly address suicide in the medically ill. Considering their high prevalence and mortality rate, this review article will highlight the mental health burden and suicide risk in obstructive lung, cardiovascular (including stroke) and oncological disease, in light of relevant data and conceptual models of suicide. Finally, general evidence-based suicide intervention strategies and potential selective adaptation of these strategies to the chronic medically ill patient populations and medical settings will be reviewed.

Validation of the 10-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale Post Stroke

OBJECTIVE

To establish reliability and validity of the abbreviated (10-item) Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD-10) among individuals post stroke.

METHOD

The psychometric properties of the CESD-10 were evaluated in 1219 adults with stroke admitted to an eligible inpatient rehabilitation facilities (n = 11) across 9 different states post stroke during 2005 to 2006. This study was a secondary data analysis of the existing publicly available clinical trial dataset, Stroke Recovery in Underserved Populations study. Reliability, validity, factory structure and item-level psychometrics of the CESD-10 were examined. In addition, the predictive accuracy of the CESD-10 was compared against the CESD-20 (criterion).

RESULTS

The CESD-10 was highly correlated with the CESD-20 (r = 0.97). The CESD-10 had good internal reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.86). The CESD-20 and CESD-10 had similar accuracy in classifying individuals as depressed (Kappa = 0.85).

CONCLUSION

The 10-item CESD is a valid measure of depression for individuals post stroke.

Prevalence of suicidal ideation among stroke survivors: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background: The prevalence of suicidal ideation (SI) among stroke survivors has been the subject of several studies, but systematic review data regarding the prevalence of SI among stroke patients are still scarce.Objectives: To estimate the pooled prevalence of SI among stroke survivors.Methods: A comprehensive search strategy was established across the following electronic databases; Web of Science, PubMed, the Cochrane Library, Chinese Wanfang database and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). The 95% confidence interval (CI) given in each identified study was used to assess the outcomes. Cochran's Q test and I² statistic were used to evaluate heterogeneity. The quality of the final evidence was evaluated using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. We calculated the pooled prevalence of SI among stroke survivors before subgroup analysis and meta-regression was used to find the partial source of heterogeneity.Results: Twenty-one studies with a total of 17,189 participants were included in this study and the pooled prevalence of SI among stroke survivors was 12.25% (95%CI: 9.91-15.07%). Substantial heterogeneity was detected in the estimation of prevalence. The evidence was graded as very low for the overall outcome and the single item subgroup, while it was graded as low for the stable scale subgroup.Conclusions: This meta-analysis suggests a high prevalence of SI among stroke survivors. Routine screening of SI after stroke is needed to plan interventions aimed at reducing suicide risk.

Rates and correlates of suicidal ideation among stroke survivors: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

A better understanding of the epidemiological impact of suicidal ideation after stroke is required to identify subjects needing personalised interventions.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this meta-analysis was to estimate rates and correlates of suicidal ideation among stroke survivors.

METHODS

We searched via Ovid, Medline, Embase and PsycInfo from database inception until August 2016. Predefined outcomes were (1) rates of suicidal ideation based on random-effects pooled proportion and (2) relevant sociodemographic and clinical correlates, using random-effects odds ratio (OR) or standardised mean difference (SMD) for categorical and continuous variables, respectively.

RESULTS

Fifteen studies and 13 independent samples, accounting for 10 400 subjects, were included in meta-analyses. The pooled proportion of suicidal ideation among stroke survivors was 11.8% (7.4% to 16.2%), with high heterogeneity across studies (I²=97.3%). Current (OR=11.50; p<0.001) and past (OR=6.96; p<0.001) depression, recurrent stroke (OR=1.77; p<0.001), disability (SMD=0.58; p=0.01) and cognitive impairment (SMD=-0.22; p=0.03) were all associated with suicidal ideation. Moreover, suicidal ideation was less likely in stroke survivors who were married (OR=0.63; p<0.001), employed (OR=0.57; p=0.02) and had higher education levels (OR=0.55; p=0.002).

CONCLUSION

Despite some limitations, this meta-analysis shows that about one out of eight stroke survivors has suicidal ideation. Thus, there is enough evidence to support the use of routine screening and early interventions to prevent and treat suicidal ideation after stroke, especially among subjects carrying specific correlates.

Predictivity of Early Depressive Symptoms for Post-Stroke Depression

OBJECTIVES

Depression is a frequent complication after stroke. However, little is known about the predictive value of early self-reported depressive symptoms (DS) for later development of post-stroke depression (PSD) 6 months after discharge.

DESIGN

Using a prospective longitudinal design, we investigated the prevalence of DS and examined their predictive value for depressive disorders 6 months after stroke while statistically controlling major established PSD risk factors.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

During inpatient rehabilitation, 96 stroke patients were screened for DS. After 6 months, 71 patients were attainable for a follow-up.

MEASUREMENTS

DS was assessed using the 15-item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15). At follow-up a telephone interview that included the Structured Clinical Interview for Psychiatric Disorders (SCID), which is based on DSM-IV criteria, and the GDS-15 was conducted. Patients with major depression (MD) at the follow-up were considered to have PSD.

RESULTS

Regression analyses were conducted to examine the influence of early DS on PSD after 6 months while controlling for age, premorbid depression, and functional and cognitive impairments. The percentage of patients who scored above the GDS-15 cut-off for clinically relevant DS increased significantly, from 37% to 44%, after 6 months. According to the SCID, 27% of stroke patients fulfilled the criteria for MD, and another 16% fulfilled those for minor depression. Logistic regression showed that DS at baseline significantly predicted PSD at follow-up (odds ratio: 1.43; 95% CI: 1.15-1.8).

CONCLUSION

Self-reported DS during inpatient rehabilitation are predictive for PSD 6 months after discharge. Assessment of early DS contributes to identifying stroke patients at risk for PSD, thereby facilitating prevention and treatment.

Clinically relevant depressive symptoms in young stroke patients - results of the sifap1 study

BACKGROUND

Although post-stroke depression is widely recognized, less is known about depressive symptoms in the acute stage of stroke and especially in young stroke patients. We thus investigated depressive symptoms and their determinants in such a cohort.

METHODS

The Stroke in Young Fabry Patients study (sifap1) prospectively recruited a large multinational European cohort (n = 5,023) of patients with a cerebrovascular event aged 18-55. For assessing clinically relevant depressive symptoms (CRDS, defined by a BDI-score ≥18) the self-reporting Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) was obtained on inclusion in the study. Associations with baseline parameters, stroke severity (National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale, NIHSS), and brain MRI findings were analyzed.

RESULTS

From the 2007 patients with BDI documentation, 202 (10.1%) had CRDS. CRDS were observed more frequently in women (12.6 vs. 8.2% in men, p < 0.001). Patients with CRDS more often had arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and hyperlipidemia than patients without CRDS (hypertension: 58.0 vs. 47.1%, p = 0.017; diabetes mellitus: 17.9 vs. 8.9%, p < 0.001; hyperlipidemia: 40.5 vs. 32.3%, p = 0.012). In the subgroup of patients with ischemic stroke or TIA (n = 1,832) no significant associations between CRDS and cerebral MRI findings such as the presence of acute infarcts (68.1 vs. 65.8%, p = 0.666), old infarctions (63.4 vs. 62.1%, p = 0.725) or white matter hyper-intensities (51.6 vs. 53.7%, p = 0.520) were found.

CONCLUSION

Depressive symptoms were present in 10.1% of young stroke patients in the acute phase, and were related to risk factors but not to imaging findings.

Part I: frequency of depression after stroke: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

BACKGROUND

Approximately 15 million people who suffer a stroke globally each year are at risk of developing depression.

AIM

To update our systematic review and meta-analysis of the frequency of depression after stroke published in 2005, including studies published before July 2004.

METHODS

We included all published observational studies (to 31 May 2013) with prospective consecutive recruitment and quantification of the proportion of people with depression after stroke. We included studies of adult (>18 years) patients with a clinical diagnosis of stroke, where an assessment of depression or depressive symptom burden was performed at a pre-specified time-point for all study participants.

RESULTS

Data were available from 61 studies including 25,488 people. The proportional frequency of depression varied considerably across studies; however, the pooled frequency estimate of 31% (95% confidence interval 28% to 35%) was not significantly different from the 33% (difference of 2%, 95% confidence interval <1% to 3%) reported in the 2005 review. The proportion with depression between one and five-years (25%; 95% confidence interval 16 to 33%) and at five years after stroke (23%; 95% confidence interval 14 to 31%) was significantly lower.

CONCLUSION

Despite systematic review evidence describing validated depression screening tools and effective treatment and prevention strategies for depression after stroke, there has not been a significant reduction in the proportion of people experiencing depression after stroke. There is a pressing need for increased clinical uptake of evidenced-based strategies to screen for, prevent, and treat depression after stroke.

Prevention of poststroke depression: does prophylactic pharmacotherapy work?

BACKGROUND

Given the negative influence of poststroke depression (PSD) on functional recovery, cognition, social participation, quality of life, and risk for mortality, the early initiation of antidepressant therapy to prevent its development has been investigated; however, individual studies have offered conflicting evidence. The present systematic review and meta-analysis examined available evidence from published randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating the effectiveness of pharmacotherapy for the prevention of PSD to provide updated pooled analyses.

METHODS

Literature searches of 6 databases were performed for the years 1990 to 2011. RCTs meeting study inclusion criteria were evaluated for methodologic quality. Data extracted included the antidepressant therapy used, treatment timing and duration, method(s) of assessment, and study results pertaining to the onset of PSD. Pooled analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

Eight RCTs were identified for inclusion. Pooled analyses demonstrated reduced odds for the development of PSD associated with pharmacologic treatment (odds ratio [OR] 0.34; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.22-0.53; P<.001), a treatment duration of 1 year (OR 0.31; 95% CI 0.18-0.56; P<.001), and the use of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (OR 0.37; 95% CI 0.22-0.61; P<.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The early initiation of antidepressant therapy, in nondepressed stroke patients, may reduce the odds for development of PSD. Optimum timing and duration for treatment and the identification of the most appropriate recipients for a program of indicated prevention require additional examination.

Evolution of depression symptoms following stroke: a prospective study using computerized ambulatory monitoring

BACKGROUND

Despite the high prevalence and impact of post-stroke depression (PSD), questions persist concerning the nature and stability of PSD over time. The current study uses state-of-the-art computerized ambulatory monitoring techniques to assess daily life depression symptoms following stroke and examines the evolution of depression levels over a three-month period.

METHODS

48 patients admitted to a university hospital neurology unit for ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke participated in ambulatory monitoring of DSM-IV depression symptoms for a one-week period after hospital discharge. Clinician-administered measures of depression were also obtained at discharge and again three months later.

RESULTS

The percentage of the sample with elevated depression scores was the same at discharge and three months later, but consistency in depression profiles was low. Ambulatory monitoring revealed that elevated depression levels at hospital discharge were most strongly associated with anhedonia (t ratio = 4.840, p < 0.001) and fatigue (t ratio = 4.00, p < 0.001), whereas individuals with elevated scores at three months were predicted by daily life negative thoughts (t ratio = 4.051, p < 0.001), anxious mood (t ratio = 3.489, p < 0.01), sad mood (t ratio = 2.621, p < 0.05) and emotional reactivity (t ratio = 2.466, p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of depression may appear stable during the immediate weeks and months following stroke, but it is likely to be composed of very different symptom profiles. The immediate physical and psychological impact of stroke may induce somatic symptoms that explain elevated depression levels and which may not indicate a risk factor for later depression.

The lived experience of stroke survivors with early depressive symptoms: A longitudinal perspective

PURPOSE

The aim of the study was to describe the lived experience as it develops over time in stroke survivors suffering from early depressive symptoms.

METHOD

This paper presents a phenomenological hermeneutical interview-study of nine participants at 6, 12, and 18 months after stroke.

FINDINGS

The participants related the depressive symptoms to the consequences of the stroke, and the experience of loss was crucial. Depressive symptoms was not meaningful on its own, but formed the backdrop of the experience of stroke. Our findings revealed three patterns of experience: (1) finding a restored self; (2) trapped in a different life; and (3) fighting to regain self. TWO GROUPS OF STROKE SURVIVORS ARE PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE AND SHOULD RECEIVE SPECIAL ATTENTION: (a) old adults living alone; and (b) adults experiencing serious threats to their commitments such as to work, family, and children.

CONCLUSION

Depressive symptoms have a severe impact on life after stroke. Life circumstances, degree of residual impairment from a stroke, and social context were found to influence people to move along different paths. Older adults living alone and adults experiencing serious threat to their commitments should receive special attention, in terms of further research and in terms of follow-up in clinical practice. More studies investigating the experience of post-stroke depression (PSD) over time and the association between depressive symptoms and loss/grieving are needed. There is also a need for continued empirical research on the identification of effective interventions aimed at prevention or improved coping with PSD.

Inflammation and depression: why poststroke depression may be the norm and not the exception

Ischaemic stroke often precedes the appearance of clinical depression. Poststroke depression in turn influences the prognostic outcome. In the interest of advancing our understanding of the biological mechanisms underlying the development of poststroke depression, this systematic review explores the immunological processes driving the development of inflammation-related cell death in mood-related brain regions. Particular attention has been paid to cytokine-driven intrinsic apoptosis factors, including intracellular calcium, glutamate excitotoxicity and free radicals that appear in the brain following ischaemic damage and whose presence significantly increases the likelihood of clinically defined depression.