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Miller WL, White PC. History of Adrenal Research: From Ancient Anatomy to Contemporary Molecular Biology. Endocr Rev 2023; 44:70-116. [PMID: 35947694 PMCID: PMC9835964 DOI: 10.1210/endrev/bnac019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The adrenal is a small, anatomically unimposing structure that escaped scientific notice until 1564 and whose existence was doubted by many until the 18th century. Adrenal functions were inferred from the adrenal insufficiency syndrome described by Addison and from the obesity and virilization that accompanied many adrenal malignancies, but early physiologists sometimes confused the roles of the cortex and medulla. Medullary epinephrine was the first hormone to be isolated (in 1901), and numerous cortical steroids were isolated between 1930 and 1949. The treatment of arthritis, Addison's disease, and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) with cortisone in the 1950s revolutionized clinical endocrinology and steroid research. Cases of CAH had been reported in the 19th century, but a defect in 21-hydroxylation in CAH was not identified until 1957. Other forms of CAH, including deficiencies of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 11β-hydroxylase, and 17α-hydroxylase were defined hormonally in the 1960s. Cytochrome P450 enzymes were described in 1962-1964, and steroid 21-hydroxylation was the first biosynthetic activity associated with a P450. Understanding of the genetic and biochemical bases of these disorders advanced rapidly from 1984 to 2004. The cloning of genes for steroidogenic enzymes and related factors revealed many mutations causing known diseases and facilitated the discovery of new disorders. Genetics and cell biology have replaced steroid chemistry as the key disciplines for understanding and teaching steroidogenesis and its disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter L Miller
- Department of Pediatrics, Center for Reproductive Sciences, and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Perrin C White
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
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Constantine GM, Lionakis MS. Lessons from primary immunodeficiencies: Autoimmune regulator and autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy. Immunol Rev 2019; 287:103-120. [PMID: 30565240 PMCID: PMC6309421 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of the autoimmune regulator (AIRE) protein and the delineation of its critical contributions in the establishment of central immune tolerance has significantly expanded our understanding of the immunological mechanisms that protect from the development of autoimmune disease. The parallel identification and characterization of patient cohorts with the monogenic disorder autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED), which is typically caused by biallelic AIRE mutations, has underscored the critical contribution of AIRE in fungal immune surveillance at mucosal surfaces and in prevention of multiorgan autoimmunity in humans. In this review, we synthesize the current clinical, genetic, molecular and immunological knowledge derived from basic studies in Aire-deficient animals and from APECED patient cohorts. We also outline major advances and research endeavors that show promise for informing improved diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for patients with APECED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory M Constantine
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Michail S Lionakis
- Fungal Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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Sundburg CR, Belanger JM, Bannasch DL, Famula TR, Oberbauer AM. Gonadectomy effects on the risk of immune disorders in the dog: a retrospective study. BMC Vet Res 2016; 12:278. [PMID: 27931211 PMCID: PMC5146839 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-016-0911-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gonadectomy is one of the most common procedures performed on dogs in the United States. Neutering has been shown to reduce the risk for some diseases although recent reports suggest increased prevalence for structural disorders and some neoplasias. The relation between neuter status and autoimmune diseases has not been explored. This study evaluated the prevalence and risk of atopic dermatitis (ATOP), autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA), canine myasthenia gravis (CMG), colitis (COL), hypoadrenocorticism (ADD), hypothyroidism (HYPO), immune-mediated polyarthritis (IMPA), immune-mediated thrombocytopenia (ITP), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), lupus erythematosus (LUP), and pemphigus complex (PEMC), for intact females, intact males, neutered females, and neutered males. Pyometra (PYO) was evaluated as a control condition. RESULTS Patient records (90,090) from the William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital at the University of California, Davis from 1995 to 2010 were analyzed in order to determine the risk of immune-mediated disease relative to neuter status in dogs. Neutered dogs had a significantly greater risk of ATOP, AIHA, ADD, HYPO, ITP, and IBD than intact dogs with neutered females being at greater risk than neutered males for all but AIHA and ADD. Neutered females, but not males, had a significantly greater risk of LUP than intact females. Pyometra was a greater risk for intact females. CONCLUSIONS The data underscore the importance of sex steroids on immune function emphasizing a role of these hormones on tissue self-recognition. Neutering is critically important for population control, reduction of reproductive disorders, and offers convenience for owners. Despite these advantages, the analyses of the present study suggest that neutering is associated with increased risk for certain autoimmune disorders and underscore the need for owners to consult with their veterinary practitioner prior to neutering to evaluate possible benefits and risks associated with such a procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal R Sundburg
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Janelle M Belanger
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Danika L Bannasch
- Department of Population Health & Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Thomas R Famula
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Anita M Oberbauer
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, One Shields Ave, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
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Turcu A, Smith JM, Auchus R, Rainey WE. Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions. Compr Physiol 2014; 4:1369-81. [PMID: 25428847 PMCID: PMC4437668 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c140006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The human adrenal produces more 19 carbon (C19) steroids, by mass, than either glucocorticoids or mineralocorticoids. However, the mechanisms regulating adrenal C19 steroid biosynthesis continue to represent one of the most intriguing mysteries of endocrine physiology. This review will discuss the C19 steroids synthesized by the human adrenal and the features within the adrenal that allow production of these steroids. Finally, we consider the effects of these steroids in normal physiology and disorders of adrenal C19 steroid excess.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adina Turcu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Texas; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Reifenstein EC, Forbes AP, Albright F, Donaldson E, Carroll E. EFFECT OF METHYL TESTOSTERONE ON URINARY 17-KETOSTEROIDS OF ADRENAL ORIGIN. J Clin Invest 2006; 24:416-34. [PMID: 16695230 PMCID: PMC435472 DOI: 10.1172/jci101620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- E C Reifenstein
- Medical Service of the Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
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Kinsell LW, Hertz S, Reifenstein EC. THE EFFECT OF TESTOSTERONE COMPOUNDS UPON THE NITROGEN BALANCE AND CREATINE EXCRETION IN PATIENTS WITH THYROTOXICOSIS. J Clin Invest 2006; 23:880-90. [PMID: 16695173 PMCID: PMC435411 DOI: 10.1172/jci101562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- L W Kinsell
- Medical Service and the Thyroid Clinic of the Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
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BARNETT HL, McNAMARA H. Electrolyte balances in a male infant with adrenocortical insufficiency and virilism; the effect of desoxycorticosterone acetate and salt therapy with special reference to potassium. J Clin Invest 2004; 28:1498-1506. [PMID: 15395952 PMCID: PMC439706 DOI: 10.1172/jci102215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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CAMERINO B, SALA G. Anabolic steroids. FORTSCHRITTE DER ARZNEIMITTELFORSCHUNG. PROGRESS IN DRUG RESEARCH. PROGRES DES RECHERCHES PHARMACEUTIQUES 1998; 2:71-134. [PMID: 14448579 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-0348-7038-2_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
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Imam K, Abdullah M, Felicetta JV. Alopecia universalis as a feature of polyglandular autoimmunity type I. West J Med 1988; 149:338-41. [PMID: 3176494 PMCID: PMC1026430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Clifton-Bligh P, Lee C, Smith H, Posen S. The association of diabetes insipidus with hypoparathyroidism. Addison's disease and mucocutaneous candidiasis. AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE 1980; 10:548-51. [PMID: 6937169 DOI: 10.1111/j.1445-5994.1980.tb04974.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A case of central diabetes insipidus is reported in association with idiopathic hypoparathyroidism, adrenal failure and mucocutaneous candidiasis. The diabetes insipidus was recognised at the same time as the discovery of aldosterone and cortisol deficiency, and occurred several years after the initial onset of mucocutaneous candidiasis and hypocalcaemia. Control of the diabetes insipidus was achieved initially with nasal aqueous lysine vasopressin and later with desmopressin. The development of diabetes insipidus may be a further aspect of endocrine secretory failure associated with idiopathic hypoparathyroidism.
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Nally FF. Idiopathic juvenile hypoparathyroidism with superficial moniliasis. Report of a case. ORAL SURGERY, ORAL MEDICINE, AND ORAL PATHOLOGY 1970; 30:356-65. [PMID: 5270888 DOI: 10.1016/0030-4220(70)90313-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Hermans PE, Ulrich JA, Markowitz H. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis as a surface expression of deep-seated abnormalities. Report of a syndrome of superficial candidiasis, absence of delayed hypersensitivity and aminoaciduria. Am J Med 1969; 47:503-19. [PMID: 5822974 DOI: 10.1016/0002-9343(69)90181-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Wuepper KD, Fudenberg HH. Moniliasis, 'autoimmune' polyendocrinopathy, and immunologic family study. Clin Exp Immunol 1967; 2:71-82. [PMID: 6030796 PMCID: PMC1578812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
A patient with chronic mucocutaneous moniliasis of 17 years' duration developed bilateral keratitis, hepatitis and steatorrhea, conditions often found in association with coexistent adrenocortical and parathyroid insufficiency. Immunologic studies showed that the patient's serum contained organ-specific antibodies. Further clinical investigation demonstrated adrenal and thyroid insufficiency; parathyroid function was normal. Immunologic abnormalities were also detected in seventeen members of his family, indicating a possible familial predisposition to `autoimmune' disease. A review of the literature suggested that the patient may have an incomplete form of a syndrome consisting primarily of idiopathic Addison's disease, hypoparathyroidism and moniliasis.
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KENNY FM, HOLLIDAY MA. HYPOPARATHYROIDISM, MONILIASIS, ADDISON'S AND HASHIMOTO'S DISEASES. HYPERCALCEMIA TREATED WITH INTRAVENOUSLY ADMINISTERED SODIUM SULFATE. N Engl J Med 1964; 271:708-13. [PMID: 14173672 DOI: 10.1056/nejm196410012711404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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HUNG W, MIGEON CJ, PARROTT RH. A POSSIBLE AUTOIMMUNE BASIS FOR ADDISON'S DISEASE IN THREE SIBLINGS, ONE WITH IDIOPATHIC HYPOPARATHYROIDISM, PERNICIOUS ANEMIA AND SUPERFICIAL MONILIASIS. N Engl J Med 1963; 269:658-63. [PMID: 14050969 DOI: 10.1056/nejm196309262691303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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SHUSTER S. Moniliasis with idiopathic hypoparathyroidism. Proc R Soc Med 1963; 56:302-3. [PMID: 13988814 PMCID: PMC1897171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
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HETZEL BS, ROBSON HN. The syndrome of hypoparathyroidism, Addison's disease and moniliasis. AUSTRALASIAN ANNALS OF MEDICINE 1958; 7:27-33. [PMID: 13522491 DOI: 10.1111/imj.1958.7.1.27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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HOLLINGER HZ, PATTEE CJ. A review of calcium and phosphorus metabolism. II. Hypocalcaemia. CANADIAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION JOURNAL 1957; 77:45-53. [PMID: 13437270 PMCID: PMC1823827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
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HURLEY GA. A word for radical surgery. CANADIAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION JOURNAL 1957; 77:20-4. [PMID: 13437262 PMCID: PMC1823826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
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BORUN ER, GEIGER E. Interrelationships of some metabolic effects of testosterone propionate in normal males during restricted sodium intake. J Clin Invest 1956; 35:1109-18. [PMID: 13367207 PMCID: PMC441686 DOI: 10.1172/jci103365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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DISCUSSION on the physiology and clinical disorders of the parathyroid glands. Proc R Soc Med 1953; 46:291-301. [PMID: 13055896 PMCID: PMC1918535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
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Engstrom WW. Nature and significance of neutral steroids in human urine in normal and in abnormal states; with a preliminary consideration of the adrenal and gonadal steroids and the factors which influence their secretion and biological action. THE YALE JOURNAL OF BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 1948; 21:21-85. [PMID: 18103721 PMCID: PMC2598785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Talbot NB, Sobel EH. Dwarfism in healthy children; its possible relation to emotional, nutritional and endocrine disturbances. N Engl J Med 1947; 236:783-93. [PMID: 20239242 DOI: 10.1056/nejm194705222362102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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The Protein Anabolic Effects of Steroid Hormones. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 1946. [DOI: 10.1016/s0083-6729(08)61085-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
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Burke G, Cantor MM. The Treatment of Simmonds' Disease with Male Sex Hormones. CANADIAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION JOURNAL 1945; 52:275-277. [PMID: 20323377 PMCID: PMC1582138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
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