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Parsons SK, Fleming MD, Nathan DG, Andrews NC. Iron Deficiency Anemia Associated with an Error of Iron Metabolism in Two Siblings: A Thirty Year Follow Up. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 1:65-73. [PMID: 27406301 DOI: 10.1080/10245332.1996.11746287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
For thirty years we have followed two siblings with apparent iron deficiency anemia in the setting of systemic iron overload. This report details their clinical courses, which have been surprisingly disparate. The female sibling has been more severely affected, requiring multiple transfusions. In contrast, the male sibling demonstrated apparent improvement at puberty. Although both have shown evidence of systemic iron overload for many years, neither has had significant end organ toxicity. We discuss the probable pathophysiology of their disorder, drawing from animal models with similar defects in iron uptake and utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Parsons
- a Division of Hematology/Oncology , Children's Hospital and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA
| | - M D Fleming
- b Department of Pathology , Brigham and Women's Hospital , Boston , MA
| | - D G Nathan
- a Division of Hematology/Oncology , Children's Hospital and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA
| | - N C Andrews
- a Division of Hematology/Oncology , Children's Hospital and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA.,c Howard Hughes Medical Institute , Boston , MA
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Willhite CC, Ball GL, Bhat VS. Emergency do not consume/do not use concentrations for ferric chloride in drinking water. Hum Exp Toxicol 2013; 32:260-74. [DOI: 10.1177/0960327112459208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The U.S. Congress [PL 107-188] amended the Safe Drinking Water Act and required each community water system serving more than 3,000 people to conduct vulnerability assessments. These assessments address potential circumstances that could compromise the safety and reliability of municipal water. Ferric chloride is used in coagulation and flocculation, and it is used to treat raw water with high viral loads, elevated dissolved solids or high bromide. Iron is an essential nutrient, but elevated concentrations of FeCl3 are corrosive as a result of hydrolysis to HCl. Based on a no-observed-adverse effect level (NOAEL) of 0.5% FeCl3 • 6H2O administered in drinking water to male and female F344 rats for up to 2 years, a do not consume concentration of 200 mg FeCl3 /L can be derived. Since instillation of 0.3 M (48.7 g/L) FeCl3 in saline to rodent vagina failed to elicit damage, a topical do not use concentration of 2000 mg FeCl3/L (600 mg Fe/L) can be assigned. The only FeCl3 data available to quantify ocular toxicity involved a pH 1 solution in rabbit eyes, but HCl instillation (pH 2.5) to rabbit eyes found permanent corneal ulceration after 10 min. The pH of FeCl3 in water at the do not use limit (2.4–2.6) is near the pH (2.0) considered corrosive by regulatory agencies. As direct eye contact with water at pH 4.5 or below increases complaints of ocular discomfort, emergency response plans that address FeCl3 in drinking water must account for Fe levels and the pH of the affected water.
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Affiliation(s)
- CC Willhite
- Risk Sciences International, Novato, Washington, DC, USA
| | - GL Ball
- NSF International, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - VS Bhat
- NSF International, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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Anderson CP, Shen M, Eisenstein RS, Leibold EA. Mammalian iron metabolism and its control by iron regulatory proteins. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2012; 1823:1468-83. [PMID: 22610083 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2012.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 331] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2012] [Revised: 05/07/2012] [Accepted: 05/11/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cellular iron homeostasis is maintained by iron regulatory proteins 1 and 2 (IRP1 and IRP2). IRPs bind to iron-responsive elements (IREs) located in the untranslated regions of mRNAs encoding protein involved in iron uptake, storage, utilization and export. Over the past decade, significant progress has been made in understanding how IRPs are regulated by iron-dependent and iron-independent mechanisms and the pathological consequences of IRP2 deficiency in mice. The identification of novel IREs involved in diverse cellular pathways has revealed that the IRP-IRE network extends to processes other than iron homeostasis. A mechanistic understanding of IRP regulation will likely yield important insights into the basis of disorders of iron metabolism. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Cell Biology of Metals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cole P Anderson
- Department of Oncological Sciences, University of Utah, 15 N. 2030 E., Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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Stavem P, Saltvedt E, Elgjo K, Rootwelt K. Congenital hypochromic microcytic anaemia with iron overload of the liver and hyperferraemia. SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF HAEMATOLOGY 2009; 10:153-60. [PMID: 4731089 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0609.1973.tb00053.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Verloop MC, Hellemen PW, Punt K. Hypochromic anaemia without iron deficiency. ACTA MEDICA SCANDINAVICA. SUPPLEMENTUM 2009; 445:249-55. [PMID: 5219915 DOI: 10.1111/j.0954-6820.1966.tb02367.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Pearson HA, Lukens JN. Ferrokinetics in the syndrome of familial hypoferremic microcytic anemia with iron malabsorption. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1999; 21:412-7. [PMID: 10524456 DOI: 10.1097/00043426-199909000-00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE In 1981, Buchanan and Sheehan described a previously unreported syndrome in three siblings who had iron malabsorption, hypoferremia, and microcytic anemia that did not respond to oral iron and responded only partly to parenteral iron dextran. Ferrokinetic studies were not done in these or subsequently reported patients with this syndrome. It has been postulated that this syndrome of abnormal iron metabolism is analogous to that observed in the mk/mk mouse, which has similar hematologic findings but also has abnormal ferrokinetics. Ferrokinetic studies were performed in one patient to determine whether the abnormality of iron metabolism in the human syndrome is analogous to the mk/mk mouse. PATIENTS AND METHODS Two sisters with severe microcytic anemia and iron malabsorption who have had only partial response to parenteral iron have been followed up for 15 years. Ferrokinetic studies with 59Fe were performed in one sister. RESULTS Ferrokinetic studies with radio iron were characteristic of iron deficient erythropoiesis (rapid 59Fe T1/2; rapid, complete incorporation of 59Fe into erythrocyte hemoglobin). These ferrokinetics differ from those of the mk/mk mouse, which has a missense mutation in Nramp2, a putative iron transporter protein. In these children, once iron enters the plasma its subsequent metabolism (including binding to transferrin), transfer into erythroid bone marrow cells, and subsequent incorporation into erythrocyte hemoglobin are all normal. The defect in these patients appears to be an undefined, novel abnormality that governs mobilization of iron into the plasma from both the intestinal mucosal and reticuloendothelial cells. Despite lifelong severe hypoferremia, the growth, development and intellectual performance of these children, who are teen-agers, are normal.
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Affiliation(s)
- H A Pearson
- Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Wharton
- MRC Childhood Nutrition Research Unit, Institute of Child Health, London, UK
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Tissue-Specific Regulation of Iron Metabolism and Heme Synthesis: Distinct Control Mechanisms in Erythroid Cells. Blood 1997. [DOI: 10.1182/blood.v89.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 393] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
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Tissue-Specific Regulation of Iron Metabolism and Heme Synthesis: Distinct Control Mechanisms in Erythroid Cells. Blood 1997. [DOI: 10.1182/blood.v89.1.1.1_1_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Abstract
Two siblings were identified with severe hypoproliferative microcytic anemia and iron malabsorption, in the absence of any gastrointestinal disorder or blood loss. These children had severe microcytosis (MCV 48 fl, hemoglobin 7.5 g/dl) with decreased serum iron, elevated serum TIBC, and decreased serum ferritin, despite prolonged treatment with oral iron. An iron challenge study with an oral dose of 2 mg/kg elemental iron as ferrous sulfate documented iron malabsorption. After treatment with intravenous iron dextran, there was an absence of the expected reticulocytosis and only a partial correction of the hemoglobin, hematocrit, and microcytosis. The bone marrow was hypocellular with abnormal iron incorporation into erythroid precursor cells. This appears to be a rare form of inherited anemia characterized by iron malabsorption and disordered iron metabolism that only partially corrects after the administration of parenteral iron. These features resemble those found in the microcytic mouse (mk/mk), which also has severe microcytic anemia and iron malabsorption that partially responds to parenteral iron.
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Affiliation(s)
- K R Hartman
- Deparment of Hematology and Vascular Biology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Walter Reed Army Medical Center Washington, DC 20307-5100, USA
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Wharton BA. Iron nutrition in childhood: the interplay of genes, development and environment. ACTA PAEDIATRICA SCANDINAVICA. SUPPLEMENT 1989; 361:5-11. [PMID: 2485584 DOI: 10.1111/apa.1989.78.s361.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The state of a child's iron nutrition depends on his genetic endowment, the stage of development he has reached and the environment in which he lives. Genetic disorders lead more commonly to iron overload than to deficiency. Generally interplay between genes and environment is apparently of little importance when considering iron deficiency; are we missing something? The greatest demands for iron are at the time of most rapid growth, i.e. during infancy and puberty, but during early infancy body stores can meet the demand without a need for dietary iron. Oxygen, diet and microbes are the important environmental factors related to iron nutrition. The relationship of oxygen toxicity to iron nutrition in the newborn has received only fleeting study, the availability of iron from many foods is unclear; the clinical significance of iron overload and deficiency in the evolution of an infection is also unclear despite a wealth of in vitro observation. I am not convinced that the bottle fed baby should receive iron in his diet during the first 4-6 months of life. Thereafter, while the concept of universal unselective supplementation causes some uneasiness there are considerable epidemiological arguments for fortification of food with iron.
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Wharton
- University of Glasgow Department of Human Nutrition, Yorkhill Hospitals
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Stavem P, Romslo I, Hovig T, Rootwelt K, Emblem R. Ferrochelatase deficiency of the bone marrow in a syndrome of congenital microcytic anaemia with iron overload of the liver and hyperferraemia. SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF HAEMATOLOGY 1985; 34:204-6. [PMID: 3975573 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0609.1985.tb02257.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Ferrochelatase deficiency of the bone marrow was found in 2 sisters with a syndrome of congenital hypochromic anaemia, hyperferraemia and heavy iron deposits in the liver.
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Stavem P, Romslo I, Hovig T, Rootwelt K, Emblem R. Ferrochelatase deficiency in the bone marrow in a syndrome of congenital hypochromic microcytic anemia, hyperferremia, and iron overload of the liver. SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF GASTROENTEROLOGY. SUPPLEMENT 1985; 107:73-81. [PMID: 3856939 DOI: 10.3109/00365528509099756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Two sisters had congenital hypochromic microcytic anemia with hyperferremia, heavy iron deposits in the liver, and reduced bone marrow iron. Liver ferrochelatase activity was within normal limits, but in the bone marrow ferrochelatase activity was only 20% of that in healthy controls. There were no findings suggestive of lead intoxication, sideroblastic anemia, or erythropoietic protoporphyria.
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Abstract
We report a case of anemia due to autoantibodies to the transferrin receptor interfering with iron incorporation by erythroid progenitors. A previously healthy woman with severe acquired microcytic anemia had increased serum iron levels, electrophoretically normal transferrin concentrations, and very high levels of free protoporphyrin in red cells. The bone marrow had no stainable iron but had an excess of normal-appearing plasma cells. Erythroid precursors stained with fluorescent mouse antihuman IgM. The serum contained an antibody that reduced 59Fe incorporation by erythroleukemia K562 cells in vitro but did not inhibit iron transferrin binding. An IgM fraction of the patient's serum immunoprecipitated the human transferrin receptor obtained from solubilized [35S]methionine-labeled K562 membranes. Binding of [59Fe]transferrin or fluorescent iron transferrin was not diminished by the patient's serum at 4 degrees C, but at 37 degrees C uptake was markedly reduced, as was the binding of fluorescent monoclonal antibodies to either surface transferrin or the human transferrin receptor. A complete clinical and hematologic remission occurred with azathioprine and prednisone therapy. We conclude that the patient's autoreactive IgM down-regulated the number of transferrin receptors and diminished iron incorporation by erythroblasts, leading to an iron-deficiency anemia.
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Abstract
A previously healthy 39-year-old woman presented with severe iron-deficiency anaemia, but she had lost no blood and her serum iron level was high. Her bone marrow was hypercellular with a predominance of erythroid elements and had no stainable iron deposits, but it also showed dyserythropoiesis and an excess of apparently normal plasma cells. IgM was demonstrated on her bone-marrow erythrocytes and their precursors. On azathioprine and prednisone therapy she had a complete clinical and haematological remission. The impaired iron transport and the associated dyserythropoiesis were probably due to an IgM-mediated autoimmune process. Diabetes mellitus, which first appeared during her anaemic illness, could also have been due to an autoimmune process. This is the first report of an iron-deficiency anaemia caused by a naturally acquired impairment of iron transport.
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Lindenbaum J. The Hematopoietic System. Nutrition 1979. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-7213-8_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Bannerman RM, Edwards JA, Kreimer-Birnbaum M, McFarland E, Russell ES. Hereditary microcytic anaemia in the mouse; studies in iron distribution and metabolism. Br J Haematol 1972; 23:235-45. [PMID: 5070129 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2141.1972.tb03476.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Waxman HS. Stimulation of globin synthesis: relative responsiveness of reticulocytes and nucleated erythroid cells. J Clin Invest 1970; 49:701-7. [PMID: 5443172 PMCID: PMC322525 DOI: 10.1172/jci106282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The effects of iron, cobalt, hemin, and plasma on hemoglobin synthesis by suspensions of rabbit reticulocytes and nucleated bone marrow cells were studied. L-Leucine-(14)C and sodium pyruvate-3-(14)C were employed to measure globin and heme synthesis, respectively. Normal plasma (or serum) was found to stimulate the rate of globin synthesis in both systems. The stimulatory effects of iron and hemin were additive to those of plasma or serum only in the reticulocytes. Cobaltous ion, at concentrations less than 1.0 mmole/liter, was found to stimulate globin synthesis by reticulocytes as effectively as ferrous ion; cobalt was inhibitory only at concentrations greater than 3.0-5.0 mmoles/liter. Heme synthesis by reticulocytes was inhibited at all concentrations employed (0.2-5.0 mmoles/liter). In bone marrow nucleated erythroid cells, globin synthesis was markedly enhanced by exogenous hemin. In contrast to reticulocytes, however, bone marrow cells were unresponsive to either cobalt or transferrin-bound iron. Possible implications of these findings on regulation of the rate and mechanism of iron uptake and hemoglobin synthesis in vivo are discussed.
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Weatherall DJ. Hypochromic Anaemias Not Due to Iron Deficiency: Thalassaemia and Sideroblastic Anaemia. JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF LONDON 1969; 3:275-284. [PMID: 30667706 PMCID: PMC5367111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Pinkerton PH. Histological evidence of disordered iron transport in the x-linked hypochromic anaemia of mice. THE JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY 1968; 95:155-65. [PMID: 5643445 DOI: 10.1002/path.1700950118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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