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Tang CY, Wang H, Zhang Y, Wang Z, Zhu G, McVicar A, Li YP, Chen W. GPR125 positively regulates osteoclastogenesis potentially through AKT-NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Int J Biol Sci 2022; 18:2392-2405. [PMID: 35414778 PMCID: PMC8990458 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.70620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) signaling is critical to cell differentiation and activation. However, the function of GPCRs in osteoclast differentiation and activation remains unclear. We found that the G-protein coupled receptor 125 (GPCR 125) gene (Gpr125) gene was highly expressed in osteoclasts through RNA-sequencing technology, qRT-PCR, and Western blot analysis. We characterized the role of GPCR125 in osteoclast differentiation and activation by loss-of-function and gain-of-function methods in osteoclasts. Osteoclasts with lentivirus-mediated GPR125 silencing demonstrated a dramatic reduction in differentiation and impaired bone resorption function. In contrast, overexpression of Gpr125 in osteoclasts increased NFATC1 expression and enhanced osteoclast differentiation and enhanced osteoclast-mediated bone resorption. These results indicated that GPCR125 positively regulates osteoclast formation and function. Following receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand (RANKL) stimulation, the expression levels of MAPK signaling pathway proteins phosphorylated-ERK (p-ERK) and phosphorylated-p38 (p-p38) were significantly decreased in the Gpr125 knockdown (sh-GPR125) group compared to its control group. We also found that phosphorylated AKT (p-AKT) expression was downregulated, as well as nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signaling pathway protein phosphorylated-IKB alpha (p-IKBα). Our results demonstrated that GPCR125 positively regulates osteoclasts via RANKL-stimulated MAPK and AKT-NF-κB signaling pathways, and GPCR125 could potentially be utilized as a novel therapeutic target in bone related diseases including osteoporosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Yi Tang
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - He Wang
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
- Engineering Research Center of Molecular & Neuroimaging, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Xidian University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710126, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Zhongliang Wang
- Engineering Research Center of Molecular & Neuroimaging, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Xidian University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710126, China
| | - Guochun Zhu
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Abigail McVicar
- Division in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Yi-Ping Li
- Division in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Wei Chen
- Division in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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Yuan G, Yang S. Effect of Regulator of G Protein Signaling Proteins on Bone. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:842421. [PMID: 35573989 PMCID: PMC9098968 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.842421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins are critical negative molecules of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling, which mediates a variety of biological processes in bone homeostasis and diseases. The RGS proteins are divided into nine subfamilies with a conserved RGS domain which plays an important role in regulating the GTPase activity. Mutations of some RGS proteins change bone development and/or metabolism, causing osteopathy. In this review, we summarize the recent findings of RGS proteins in regulating osteoblasts, chondrocytes, and osteoclasts. We also highlight the impacts of RGS on bone development, bone remodeling, and bone-related diseases. Those studies demonstrate that RGS proteins might be potential drug targets for bone diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gongsheng Yuan
- Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, Penn Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Shuying Yang
- Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, Penn Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- The Penn Center for Musculoskeletal Disorders, Penn Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Center for Innovation and Precision Dentistry, Penn Dental Medicine, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- *Correspondence: Shuying Yang,
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Osteogenesis Is Improved by Low Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Concentration through the Modulation of Gs-Coupled Receptor Signals. Mol Cell Biol 2017; 37:MCB.00442-16. [PMID: 28137910 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00442-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In the early phase of bone damage, low concentrations of the cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) favor osteoblast differentiation. In contrast, chronic high doses of the same cytokine contribute to bone loss, demonstrating opposite effects depending on its concentration and on the time of exposure. In the bone microenvironment, TNF-α modulates the expression/function of different G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and of their regulatory proteins, GPCR-regulated kinases (GRKs), thus dictating their final biological outcome in controlling bone anabolic processes. Here, the effects of TNF-α were investigated on the expression/responsiveness of the A2B adenosine receptor (A2BAR), a Gs-coupled receptor that promotes mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) differentiation into osteoblasts. Low TNF-α concentrations exerted a prodifferentiating effect on MSCs, pushing them toward an osteoblast phenotype. By regulating GRK2 turnover and expression, the cytokine impaired A2BAR desensitization, accelerating receptor-mediated osteoblast differentiation. These data supported the anabolic effect of TNF-α submaximal concentration and demonstrated that the cytokine regulates GPCR responses by interfering with the receptor desensitization machinery, thereby enhancing the anabolic responses evoked by A2BAR ligands. Overall, these results indicated that GPCR desensitization plays a pivotal role in osteogenesis and that its manipulation is an effective strategy to favor bone remodeling.
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Elefteriou F, Campbell P, Ma Y. Control of bone remodeling by the peripheral sympathetic nervous system. Calcif Tissue Int 2014; 94:140-51. [PMID: 23765388 PMCID: PMC3883940 DOI: 10.1007/s00223-013-9752-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The skeleton is no longer seen as a static, isolated, and mostly structural organ. Over the last two decades, a more complete picture of the multiple functions of the skeleton has emerged, and its interactions with a growing number of apparently unrelated organs have become evident. The skeleton not only reacts to mechanical loading and inflammatory, hormonal, and mineral challenges, but also acts of its own accord by secreting factors controlling the function of other tissues, including the kidney and possibly the pancreas and gonads. It is thus becoming widely recognized that it is by nature an endocrine organ, in addition to a structural organ and site of mineral storage and hematopoiesis. Consequently and by definition, bone homeostasis must be tightly regulated and integrated with the biology of other organs to maintain whole body homeostasis, and data uncovering the involvement of the central nervous system (CNS) in the control of bone remodeling support this concept. The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) represents one of the main links between the CNS and the skeleton, based on a number of anatomic, pharmacologic, and genetic studies focused on β-adrenergic receptor (βAR) signaling in bone cells. The goal of this report was to review the data supporting the role of the SNS and βAR signaling in the regulation of skeletal homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florent Elefteriou
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt Center for Bone Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA,
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Santulli G, Trimarco B, Iaccarino G. G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 and hypertension: molecular insights and pathophysiological mechanisms. High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev 2013; 20:5-12. [PMID: 23532739 DOI: 10.1007/s40292-013-0001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous factors partake in the fine-tuning of arterial blood pressure. The heptahelical G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent one of the largest classes of cell-surface receptors. Further, ligands directed at GPCRs account for nearly 30 % of current clinical pharmaceutical agents available. Given the wide variety of GPCRs involved in blood pressure control, it is reasonable to speculate for a potential role of established intermediaries involved in the GPCR desensitization process, like the G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs), in the regulation of vascular tone. Of the seven mammalian GRKs, GRK2 seems to be the most relevant isoform at the cardiovascular level. This review attempts to assemble the currently available information concerning GRK2 and hypertension, opening new potential fields of translational investigation to treat this vexing disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaetano Santulli
- Department of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Federico II University of Naples, 80131, Naples, Italy.
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Xing Y, Gu Y, Gomes RR, You J. P2Y(2) receptors and GRK2 are involved in oscillatory fluid flow induced ERK1/2 responses in chondrocytes. J Orthop Res 2011; 29:828-33. [PMID: 21520257 PMCID: PMC3126889 DOI: 10.1002/jor.21319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2010] [Accepted: 10/28/2010] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Mechanical loading is an important factor regulating cartilage metabolism maintained by chondrocytes. However, some of its underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, we employed a chondrogenic cell line ATDC5 to investigate roles of P2Y(2) and GRK2 in chondrocyte mechanotransduction. We first confirmed the expression of chondrocyte markers in differentiated ATDC5 cells. We then exposed both differentiated and undifferentiated ATDC5 cells to oscillatory fluid flow, and found that differentiated ATDC5 cells responded to oscillatory fluid flow by increasing COX-2 and aggrecan expressions. More importantly, fluid flow induced ERK1/2 response in differentiated cells was increased more than 10 times compared to those in undifferentiated cells. Furthermore, we found that P2Y(2) mRNA and protein levels in differentiated ATDC5 cells were significantly higher than those in undifferentiated cells. In contrast, GRK2 protein levels in differentiated cells were significantly lower than those in undifferentiated cells. Finally, overexpressions of P2Y(2) and GRK2 in differentiated ATDC5 cells result in a 34% increase and a 21% decrease of the ERK1/2 phosphorylation, respectively, in response to oscillatory fluid flow, suggesting important roles of P2Y(2) and GRK2 in chondrocyte mechanotransduction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jun You
- Corresponding Author: Jun You, Ph.D., Department of Orthopaedics, 500 University Drive, Hershey, PA 17033, U.S.A., , Tel: (01)-717-531-4819, Fax: (01)-717-531-7583
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Datta NS, Samra TA, Mahalingam CD, Datta T, Abou-Samra AB. Role of PTH1R internalization in osteoblasts and bone mass using a phosphorylation-deficient knock-in mouse model. J Endocrinol 2010; 207:355-65. [PMID: 20929987 PMCID: PMC3771320 DOI: 10.1677/joe-10-0227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Phosphorylation, internalization, and desensitization of G protein-coupled receptors, such as the parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH-related peptide (PTHrP) receptor (PTH1R), are well characterized and known to regulate the cellular responsiveness in vitro. However, the role of PTH1R receptor phosphorylation in bone formation and osteoblast functions has not yet been elucidated. In previous studies, we demonstrated impaired internalization and sustained cAMP stimulation of a phosphorylation-deficient (pd) PTH1R in vitro, and exaggerated cAMP and calcemic responses to s.c. PTH infusion in pdPTH1R knock-in mouse model. In this study, we examined the impact of impaired PTH1R phosphorylation on the skeletal phenotype of mice maintained on normal, low, and high calcium diets. The low calcium diet moderately reduced (P<0.05) bone volume and trabecular number, and increased trabecular spacing in both wild-type (WT) and pd mice. The effects, however, seem to be less pronounced in the female pd compared to WT mice. In primary calvarial osteoblasts isolated from 2-week-old pd or WT mice, PTH and PTHrP decreased phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (pERK1/2), a member of mitogen-activated protein kinase, and cyclin D1, a G₁/S phase cyclin, in vitro. In contrast to WT osteoblasts, down-regulation of cyclin D1 was sustained for longer periods of time in osteoblasts isolated from the pd mice. Our results suggest that adaptive responses of intracellular signaling pathways in the pd mice may be important for maintaining bone homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabanita S Datta
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 1107 Elliman Building, 421 East Canfield Avenue, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA.
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Gesty-Palmer D, Flannery P, Yuan L, Corsino L, Spurney R, Lefkowitz RJ, Luttrell LM. A beta-arrestin-biased agonist of the parathyroid hormone receptor (PTH1R) promotes bone formation independent of G protein activation. Sci Transl Med 2010; 1:1ra1. [PMID: 20368153 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3000071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
About 40% of the therapeutic agents in use today exert their effects through seven-transmembrane receptors (7TMRs). When activated by ligands, these receptors trigger two pathways that independently transduce signals to the cell: one through heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins (G proteins) and one through beta-arrestins; so-called biased agonists can selectively activate these distinct pathways. Here, we investigate selective activation of these pathways through the use of a biased agonist for the type 1 parathyroid hormone (PTH)-PTH-related protein receptor (PTH1R), (D-Trp(12),Tyr(34))-PTH(7-34) (PTH-betaarr), which activates beta-arrestin but not classic G protein signaling. In mice, PTH-betaarr induces anabolic bone formation, as does the nonselective agonist PTH(1-34), which activates both mechanisms. In beta-arrestin2-null mice, the increase in bone mineral density evoked by PTH(1-34) is attenuated and that stimulated by PTH-betaarr is ablated. The beta-arrestin2-dependent pathway contributes primarily to trabecular bone formation and does not stimulate bone resorption. These results show that a biased agonist selective for the beta-arrestin pathway can elicit a response in vivo distinct from that elicited by nonselective agonists. Ligands with these properties may form the basis for improved 7TMR-directed pharmacologic agents with enhanced therapeutic specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane Gesty-Palmer
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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Wang L, Gesty-Palmer D, Fields TA, Spurney RF. Inhibition of WNT signaling by G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) kinase 2 (GRK2). Mol Endocrinol 2009; 23:1455-65. [PMID: 19556343 PMCID: PMC2737558 DOI: 10.1210/me.2009-0084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2009] [Accepted: 06/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of Wnt signaling pathways causes release and stabilization of the transcription regulator beta-catenin from a destruction complex composed of axin and the adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) protein (canonical signaling pathway). Assembly of this complex is facilitated by a protein-protein interaction between APC and a regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) domain in axin. Because G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) has a RGS domain that is closely related to the RGS domain in axin, we determined whether GRK2 regulated canonical signaling. We found that GRK2 inhibited Wnt1-induced activation of a reporter construct as well as reduced Wnt3a-dependent stabilization and nuclear translocation of beta-catenin. GRK2 enzymatic activity was required for this negative regulatory effect, and depletion of endogenous GRK2 using small interfering RNA enhanced canonical signaling. GRK2-dependent inhibition of canonical signaling is relevant to osteoblast (OB) biology because overexpression of GRK2 attenuated Wnt/beta-catenin signaling in calvarial OBs. Coimmunoprecipitation studies found that: 1) GRK2 bound APC; 2) The GRK2-APC interaction was promoted by GRK2 enzymatic activity; and 3) Deletion of the RGS domain in GRK2 prevented both the GRK2-APC interaction and GRK2-dependent inhibition of canonical signaling. These data suggest that: 1) GRK2 negatively regulates Wnt signaling; 2) GRK2-dependent inhibition of canonical signaling requires a protein-protein interaction between the RGS domain in GRK2 and APC; and 3) Enzymatic activity promotes the GRK2-APC interaction and is required for the negative regulatory effect on canonical signaling. We speculate that inhibiting GRK2 activity in bone-forming OBs might be a useful therapeutic strategy for increasing bone mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liming Wang
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
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Miao D, He B, Jiang Y, Kobayashi T, Sorocéanu MA, Zhao J, Su H, Tong X, Amizuka N, Gupta A, Genant HK, Kronenberg HM, Goltzman D, Karaplis AC. Osteoblast-derived PTHrP is a potent endogenous bone anabolic agent that modifies the therapeutic efficacy of administered PTH 1-34. J Clin Invest 2005; 115:2402-11. [PMID: 16138191 PMCID: PMC1193882 DOI: 10.1172/jci24918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2005] [Accepted: 06/27/2005] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Mice heterozygous for targeted disruption of Pthrp exhibit, by 3 months of age, diminished bone volume and skeletal microarchitectural changes indicative of advanced osteoporosis. Impaired bone formation arising from decreased BM precursor cell recruitment and increased apoptotic death of osteoblastic cells was identified as the underlying mechanism for low bone mass. The osteoporotic phenotype was recapitulated in mice with osteoblast-specific targeted disruption of Pthrp, generated using Cre-LoxP technology, and defective bone formation was reaffirmed as the underlying etiology. Daily administration of the 1-34 amino-terminal fragment of parathyroid hormone (PTH 1-34) to Pthrp+/- mice resulted in profound improvement in all parameters of skeletal microarchitecture, surpassing the improvement observed in treated WT littermates. These findings establish a pivotal role for osteoblast-derived PTH-related protein (PTHrP) as a potent endogenous bone anabolic factor that potentiates bone formation by altering osteoblast recruitment and survival and whose level of expression in the bone microenvironment influences the therapeutic efficacy of exogenous PTH 1-34.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dengshun Miao
- Calcium Research Laboratory and Department of Medicine, Royal Victoria Hospital of the McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, Québec, Canada
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Anis Y, Leshem O, Reuveni H, Wexler I, Ben Sasson R, Yahalom B, Laster M, Raz I, Ben Sasson S, Shafrir E, Ziv E. Antidiabetic effect of novel modulating peptides of G-protein-coupled kinase in experimental models of diabetes. Diabetologia 2004; 47:1232-1244. [PMID: 15235770 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-004-1444-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2003] [Accepted: 04/19/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) play a key role in agonist-induced desensitisation of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that are involved in metabolic regulation and glucose homeostasis. Our aim was to examine whether small peptides derived from the catalytic domain of GRK2 and -3 would ameliorate Type 2 diabetes in three separate animal models of diabetes. METHODS Synthetic peptides derived from a kinase-substrate interaction site in GRK2/3 were initially screened for their effect on in vitro melanogenesis, a GRK-mediated process. The most effective peptides were administered intraperitoneally, utilising a variety of dosing regimens, to Psammomys obesus gerbils, Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats, or db/db mice. The metabolic effects of these peptides were assessed by measuring fasting and fed blood glucose levels and glucose tolerance. RESULTS Two peptides, KRX-683(107) and KRX-683(124), significantly reduced fed-state blood glucose levels in the diabetic Psammomys obesus. In animals treated with KRX-683(124) at a dose of 12.5 mg/kg weekly for 7 weeks, ten of eleven treated animals responded with mean blood glucose significantly lower than controls (4.7+/-0.4 vs 16.8+/-0.8 mmol/l, p</=0.0001). Significant reductions in blood glucose compared with controls were also seen in ZDF rats administered KRX-683(124) and in db/db mice, which had significantly reduced fasting and 2-hour postprandial glucose levels after the treatment. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION Sequence-based peptides derived from GRK2/3 have an antidiabetic effect demonstrated in three different animal models of Type 2 diabetes. By modulating GRK2/3 activity, these peptides enhance GPCR-initiated signal transduction, resulting in improved glucose homeostasis. Sequence-based peptide modulation of GRK could prove useful in the treatment of Type 2 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Anis
- Keryx Biopharmaceuticals, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - O Leshem
- Keryx Biopharmaceuticals, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - H Reuveni
- Keryx Biopharmaceuticals, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - I Wexler
- Keryx Biopharmaceuticals, Jerusalem, Israel
- Department of Pediatrics, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - R Ben Sasson
- Diabetes Research Center, Department of Medicine, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - B Yahalom
- Keryx Biopharmaceuticals, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - M Laster
- Keryx Biopharmaceuticals, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - I Raz
- Diabetes Research Center, Department of Medicine, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - S Ben Sasson
- Department of Experimental Medicine & Cancer Research, Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - E Shafrir
- Diabetes Research Center, Department of Medicine, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - E Ziv
- Diabetes Research Center, Department of Medicine, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.
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