miR-200-containing extracellular vesicles promote breast cancer cell metastasis

miR-200-mediated inactivation of cancer-associated fibroblasts via targeting of NRP2-VEGFR signaling attenuates lung cancer invasion and metastasis

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play a substantial role in promoting cancer cell motility, drug resistance, angiogenesis, and metastasis; therefore, extensive research has been conducted to determine their mode of activation. We aimed to identify whether miRNA-200 (miR-200), a widely recognized suppressor of epithelial-mesenchymal transition, prevents CAFs from promoting cancer progression. Overexpression of miR-200 prevented CAFs from promoting lung cancer cell migration, invasion, tumorigenicity, and metastasis. Additionally, miR-200 suppressed the ability of CAFs to recruit and polarize macrophages toward the M2 phenotype, as well as the migration and tube formation of vascular endothelial cells. NRP2, a co-receptor of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR), was confirmed to be a target of miR-200, which mediates the functional activity of miR-200 in CAFs. NRP2-VEGFR signaling facilitates the secretion of VEGF-D and pleiotrophin from CAFs, leading to the activation of cancer cell migration and invasion. These findings suggest that miR-200 remodels CAFs to impede cancer progression and metastasis and that miR-200 and NRP2 are potential therapeutic targets in the treatment of lung cancer.

Extracellular vesicles-powered immunotherapy: Unleashing the potential for safer and more effective cancer treatment

Cancer treatment has seen significant advancements with the introduction of Onco-immunotherapies (OIMTs). Although some of these therapies have received approval for use, others are either undergoing testing or are still in the early stages of development. Challenges persist in making immunotherapy widely applicable to cancer treatment. To maximize the benefits of immunotherapy and minimize potential side effects, it's essential to improve response rates across different immunotherapy methods. A promising development in this area is the use of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as novel delivery systems. These small vesicles can effectively deliver immunotherapies, enhancing their effectiveness and reducing harmful side effects. This article discusses the importance of integrating nanomedicines into OIMTs, highlighting the challenges with current anti-OIMT methods. It also explores key considerations for designing nanomedicines tailored for OIMTs, aiming to improve upon existing immunotherapy techniques. Additionally, the article looks into innovative approaches like biomimicry and the use of natural biomaterial-based nanocarriers (NCs). These advancements have the potential to transform the delivery of immunotherapy. Lastly, the article addresses the challenges of moving OIMTs from theory to clinical practice, providing insights into the future of using advanced nanotechnology in cancer treatment.

Tumor biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis and targeted therapy

Tumor biomarkers, the substances which are produced by tumors or the body's responses to tumors during tumorigenesis and progression, have been demonstrated to possess critical and encouraging value in screening and early diagnosis, prognosis prediction, recurrence detection, and therapeutic efficacy monitoring of cancers. Over the past decades, continuous progress has been made in exploring and discovering novel, sensitive, specific, and accurate tumor biomarkers, which has significantly promoted personalized medicine and improved the outcomes of cancer patients, especially advances in molecular biology technologies developed for the detection of tumor biomarkers. Herein, we summarize the discovery and development of tumor biomarkers, including the history of tumor biomarkers, the conventional and innovative technologies used for biomarker discovery and detection, the classification of tumor biomarkers based on tissue origins, and the application of tumor biomarkers in clinical cancer management. In particular, we highlight the recent advancements in biomarker-based anticancer-targeted therapies which are emerging as breakthroughs and promising cancer therapeutic strategies. We also discuss limitations and challenges that need to be addressed and provide insights and perspectives to turn challenges into opportunities in this field. Collectively, the discovery and application of multiple tumor biomarkers emphasized in this review may provide guidance on improved precision medicine, broaden horizons in future research directions, and expedite the clinical classification of cancer patients according to their molecular biomarkers rather than organs of origin.

Construction of exosome-related genes risk model in kidney cell carcinoma predicts prognosis and immune therapy response

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is one of the most prevalent types of urological cancer. Exosomes are vesicles derived from cells and have been found to promote the development of RCC, but the potential biomarker and molecular mechanism of exosomes on RCC remain ambiguous. Here, we first screened differentially expressed exosome-related genes (ERGs) by analyzing The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and exoRBase 2.0 database. We then determined prognosis-related ERGs (PRERGs) by univariate Cox regression analysis. Gene Dependency Score (gDS), target development level, and pathway correlation analysis were utilized to examine the importance of PRERGs. Machine learning and lasso-cox regression were utilized to screen and construct a 5-gene risk model. The risk model showed high predictive accuracy for the prognosis of patients and proved to be an independent prognostic factor in three RCC datasets, including TCGA-KIRC, E-MTAB-1980, and TCGA-KIRP datasets. Patients with high-risk scores showed worse outcomes in different clinical subgroups, revealing that the risk score is robust. In addition, we found that immune-related pathways are highly enriched in the high-risk group. Activities of immune cells were distinct in high-/low-risk groups. In independent immune therapeutic cohorts, high-risk patients show worse immune therapy responses. In summary, we identified several exosome-derived genes that might play essential roles in RCC and constructed a 5-gene risk signature to predict the prognosis of RCC and immune therapy response.

Aged breast matrix bound vesicles promote breast cancer invasiveness

Aging is one of the inherent risk factors for breast cancer. Although the influence of age-related cellular alterations on breast cancer development has been extensively explored, little is known about the alterations in the aging breast tissue microenvironment, specifically the extracellular matrix (ECM). Here, for the first time in literature, we have identified tissue resident matrix bound vesicles (MBVs) within the healthy mouse breast ECM, investigated and compared their characteristics in young and aged healthy breast tissues, and studied the effects of these MBVs on normal (KTB21) and cancerous (MDA-MB-231) human mammary epithelial cells with respect to the tissue age that they are extracted from. Using vesicle labeling technology, we were able to visualize cellular uptake of the MBVs directly from the native decellularized tissue sections, showing that these MBVs have regulatory roles in the tissue microenvironment. We mimicked the ECM by embedding the MBVs in collagen gels, and showed that MBVs could be taken up by the cells. The miRNA and cytokine profiling showed that MBVs shifted towards a more tumorigenic and invasive phenotype with age, as evidenced by the more pronounced presence of cancer-associated cytokines, and higher expression levels of oncomiRs miR-10b, miR-30e, and miR-210 in MBVs isolated from aged mice. When treated with MBVs or these upregulated factors, KTB21 and MDA-MB-231 cells showed significantly higher motility and invasion compared to untreated controls. Treatment of cells with a cocktail of miRNAs (miR-10b, miR-30e, and miR-210) or with the agonist of adiponectin (AdipoRon), which both were enriched in the aged MBVs, recapitulated the effect of aged MBVs on cells. This study shows for the first time that the MBVs have a regulatory role in the tissue microenvironment and that the MBV contents change towards cancer-promoting upon aging. Studying the effects of MBVs and their cargos on cellular behavior could lead to a better understanding of the critical roles of MBVs played in breast cancer progression and metastasis.

Tumor-derived miR-6794-5p enhances cancer growth by promoting M2 macrophage polarization

BACKGROUND

Solid tumors promote tumor malignancy through interaction with the tumor microenvironment, resulting in difficulties in tumor treatment. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the communication between cells in the tumor and the surrounding microenvironment. Our previous study revealed the cancer malignancy mechanism of Bcl-w overexpressed in solid tumors, but no study was conducted on its relationship with immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. In this study, we sought to discover key factors in exosomes secreted from tumors overexpressing Bcl-w and analyze the interaction with the surrounding tumor microenvironment to identify the causes of tumor malignancy.

METHODS

To analyze factors affecting the tumor microenvironment, a miRNA array was performed using exosomes derived from cancer cells overexpressing Bcl-w. The discovered miRNA, miR-6794-5p, was overexpressed and the tumorigenicity mechanism was confirmed using qRT-PCR, Western blot, invasion, wound healing, and sphere formation ability analysis. In addition, luciferase activity and Ago2-RNA immunoprecipitation assays were used to study the mechanism between miR-6794-5p and its target gene SOCS1. To confirm the interaction between macrophages and tumor-derived miR-6794-5p, co-culture was performed using conditioned media. Additionally, immunohistochemical (IHC) staining and flow cytometry were performed to analyze macrophages in the tumor tissues of experimental animals.

RESULTS

MiR-6794-5p, which is highly expressed in exosomes secreted from Bcl-w-overexpressing cells, was selected, and it was shown that the overexpression of miR-6794-5p increased migratory ability, invasiveness, and stemness maintenance by suppressing the expression of the tumor suppressor SOCS1. Additionally, tumor-derived miR-6794-5p was delivered to THP-1-derived macrophages and induced M2 polarization by activating the JAK1/STAT3 pathway. Moreover, IL-10 secreted from M2 macrophages increased tumorigenicity by creating an immunosuppressive environment. The in vitro results were reconfirmed by confirming an increase in M2 macrophages and a decrease in M1 macrophages and CD8+ T cells when overexpressing miR-6794-5p in an animal model.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we identified changes in the tumor microenvironment caused by miR-6794-5p. Our study indicates that tumor-derived miR-6794-5p promotes tumor aggressiveness by inducing an immunosuppressive environment through interaction with macrophage.

Exosomal microRNAs in breast cancer: towards theranostic applications

Breast cancer is one of the top two reproductive cancers responsible for high rates of morbidity and mortality among women globally. Despite the advancements in the treatment of breast cancer, its early diagnosis remains a challenge. Recent evidence indicates that despite the adroit use of numerous strategies to facilitate rapid and precision-oriented screening of breast cancer at the community level through the use of mammograms, Fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) and biomarker tracking, no strategy has been unequivocally accepted as a gold standard for facilitating rapid screening for disease. This necessitates the need to identify novel strategies for the detection and triage of breast cancer lesions at higher rates of specificity, and sensitivity, whilst taking into account the epidemiologic and social-demographic features of the patients. Recent shreds of evidence indicate that exosomes could be a robust source of biomaterial for the rapid screening of breast cancer due to their high stability and their presence in body fluids. Increasing evidence indicates that the Exosomal microRNAs- play a significant role in modifying the tumour microenvironment of breast cancers, thereby potentially aiding in the proliferation, invasion and metastasis of breast cancer. In this review, we summarize the role of ExomiRs in the tumour microenvironment in breast cancer. These ExomiRs can also be used as candidate biomarkers for facilitating rapid screening and triaging of breast cancer patients for clinical intervention.

Autophagy-modulating biomembrane nanostructures: A robust anticancer weapon by modulating the inner and outer cancer environment

Recently, biomembrane nanostructures, such as liposomes, cell membrane-coated nanostructures, and exosomes, have demonstrated promising anticancer therapeutic effects. These nanostructures possess remarkable biocompatibility, multifunctionality, and low toxicity. However, their therapeutic efficacy is impeded by chemoresistance and radiotherapy resistance, which are closely associated with autophagy. Modulating autophagy could enhance the therapeutic sensitivity and effectiveness of these biomembrane nanostructures by influencing the immune system and the cancer microenvironment. For instance, autophagy can regulate the immunogenic cell death of cancer cells, antigen presentation of dendritic cells, and macrophage polarization, thereby activating the inflammatory response in the cancer microenvironment. Furthermore, combining autophagy-regulating drugs or genes with biomembrane nanostructures can exploit the targeting and long-term circulation properties of these nanostructures, leading to increased drug accumulation in cancer cells. This review explores the role of autophagy in carcinogenesis, cancer progression, metastasis, cancer immune responses, and resistance to treatment. Additionally, it highlights recent research advancements in the synergistic anticancer effects achieved through autophagy regulation by biomembrane nanostructures. The review also discusses the prospects and challenges associated with the future clinical translation of these innovative treatment strategies. In summary, these findings provide valuable insights into autophagy, autophagy-modulating biomembrane-based nanostructures, and the underlying molecular mechanisms, thereby facilitating the development of promising cancer therapeutics.

A novel therapeutic strategy: the significance of exosomal miRNAs in acute myeloid leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a fast-growing blood cancer that interferes with the normal growth of blood cells in the bone marrow and blood. It is characterized by its unpredictable outlook and high death rate. The main treatment for AML is chemotherapy, but this often results in drug resistance and the possibility of the disease returning. For this reason, new biomarkers are necessary to diagnose, predict, and treat this disease. Research has demonstrated that cells responsible for AML release exosomes that interact with the disease's microenvironment. These exosomes have significant roles in promoting leukemia growth, suppressing normal hematopoiesis, facilitating angiogenesis, and contributing to drug resistance in AML. Further investigations have shown that these exosomes contain miRNAs, which are transferred to target cells and have functional roles. Biomarkers are utilized to assess various aspects of tumor cell behavior, including proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, changes in the microenvironment, transfer of drug resistance, and stability in serum and blood plasma. In this research, we showed that exosomal miRNAs and exosomes have the potential to be used as indicators for detecting various phases of AML and can aid in its medical treatment. Furthermore, they can be specifically targeted for therapeutic purposes in addressing this condition.

Applications of Exosome Vesicles in Different Cancer Types as Biomarkers

One of the biggest challenges in the fight against cancer is early detection. Early diagnosis is vital, but there are some barriers such as economic, cultural, and personal factors. Considering the disadvantages of radiological imaging techniques or serological analysis methods used in cancer diagnosis, such as being expensive, requiring expertise, and being time-consuming, there is a need to develop faster, more reliable, and cost-effective diagnostic methods for use in cancer diagnosis. Exosomes, which are responsible for intercellular communication with sizes ranging from 30-120 nm, are naturally produced biological nanoparticles. Thanks to the cargo contents they carry, they are a potential biomarker to be used in the diagnosis of cancer. Exosomes, defined as extracellular vesicles of endosomal origin, are effective in cancer growth, progression, metastasis, and drug resistance, and changes in microenvironmental conditions during tumor development change exosome secretion. Due to their high cellular activity, tumor cells produce much higher exosomes than healthy cells. Therefore, it is known that the number of exosomes in body fluids is significantly rich compared to other cells and can act as a stand-alone diagnostic biomarker. Cancer- derived exosomes have received great attention in recent years for the early detection of cancer and the evaluation of therapeutic response. In this article, the content, properties, and differences of exosomes detected in common types of cancer (lung, liver, pancreas, ovaries, breast, colorectal), which are the leading causes of cancer-related deaths, are reviewed. We also discuss the potential utility of exosome contents as a biomarker for early detection, which is known to be important in targeted cancer therapy.

The role of extracellular vesicles in circulating tumor cell-mediated distant metastasis

Current research has demonstrated that extracellular vesicles (EVs) and circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are very closely related in the process of distant tumor metastasis. Primary tumors are shed and released into the bloodstream to form CTCs that are referred to as seeds to colonize and grow in soil-like distant target organs, while EVs of tumor and nontumor origin act as fertilizers in the process of tumor metastasis. There is no previous text that provides a comprehensive review of the role of EVs on CTCs during tumor metastasis. In this paper, we reviewed the mechanisms of EVs on CTCs during tumor metastasis, including the ability of EVs to enhance the shedding of CTCs, protect CTCs in circulation and determine the direction of CTC metastasis, thus affecting the distant metastasis of tumors.

Hypoxic BMSC-derived exosomal miR-652-3p promotes proliferation and metastasis of hepatocarcinoma cancer cells via targeting TNRC6A

Cancer microenvironment plays an important role in the proliferation and metastasis of hepatocarcinoma cancer cells (HCC). Exosomes from bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) are a component of the cancer microenvironment. In this study, we reveal that miRNA-652-3P from BMSC-derived exosomes promotes proliferation and metastasis in HCC. The ability of cancer proliferation, migration and invasion can be evaluated after co-culture by CCK-8, wound healing and transwell assay. Isolated exosomes were identified by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and the biomarkers of the purified exosomes were showed in West-blotting (WB). MiR-652-3p was detected in the HepG2 and 7721 after co-culturing with exosome derived from BMSCs under different conditions. Target authentication was performed by a luciferase reporter assay to confirm the presumptive target of miR-652-3p. After overexpressing miR-652-3p, the mRNA and protein expression level of TNRC6A in HCC was examined by q-PCR and WB. Further, we observed greater miR-652-3p upregulation in hypoxic BMSCs-exosomes than in normal- exosomes. In addition, a miR-652-3p inhibitor attenuates the proliferation and metastasis of HCC cells after co-culturing with BMSCs. Our data demonstrate that hypoxic BMSCs-derived exosomal miR-652-3p promotes proliferation in HCC cells by inhibiting TNRC6A. The BMSCs-derived exosomal miR-652-3p may help find patient-targeted therapies in hepatocarcinoma cancer.

MiR-200b categorizes patients into pancreas cystic lesion subgroups with different malignant potential

Extracellular vesicles (EV) carry their cargo in a membrane protected form, however, their value in early diagnostics is not well known. Although pancreatic cysts are heterogeneous, they can be clustered into the larger groups of pseudocysts (PC), and serous and mucinous pancreatic cystic neoplasms (S-PCN and M-PCN, respectively). In contrast to PCs and S-PCNs, M-PCNs may progress to malignant pancreatic cancers. Since current diagnostic tools do not meet the criteria of high sensitivity and specificity, novel methods are urgently needed to differentiate M-PCNs from other cysts. We show that cyst fluid is a rich source of EVs that are positive and negative for the EV markers CD63 and CD81, respectively. Whereas we found no difference in the EV number when comparing M-PCN with other pancreatic cysts, our EV-based biomarker identification showed that EVs from M-PCNs had a higher level of miR-200b. We also prove that not only EV-derived, but also total cyst fluid miR-200b discriminates patients with M-PCN from other pancreatic cysts with a higher sensitivity and specificity compared to other diagnostic methods, providing the possibility for clinical applications. Our results show that measuring miR-200b in cyst fluid-derived EVs or from cyst fluid may be clinically important in categorizing patients.

Long non-coding RNAs and pancreatic cancer: A multifaceted view

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is a highly malignant disease with a 5-year survival rate of only 10%. Families with PC are at greater risk, as are type 2 diabetes, pancreatitis, and other factors. Insufficient early detection methods make this cancer have a poor prognosis. Additionally, the molecular mechanisms underlying PC development remain unclear. Increasing evidence suggests that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) contribute to PC pathology,which may control gene expression by recruiting histone modification complexes to chromatin and interacting with proteins and RNAs. In recent studies, abnormal regulation of lncRNAs has been implicated in PC proliferation, metastasis, invasion, angiogenesis, apoptosis, and chemotherapy resistance suggesting potential clinical implications. The paper reviews the progress of lncRNA research in PC about diabetes mellitus, pancreatitis, cancer metastasis, tumor microenvironment regulation, and chemoresistance. Furthermore, lncRNAs may serve as potential therapeutic targets and biomarkers for PC diagnosis and prognosis. This will help improve PC patients' survival rate from a lncRNA perspective.

Exosomal miRNA-200b-3p regulated autogenous arteriovenous fistula thrombosis in maintenance hemodialysis patients

BACKGROUND

Autogenous arteriovenous fistula (AVF) is the best vascular hemodialysis access for terminal chronic renal failure patients but is prone to thrombosis. Pathogenic mechanisms of AVF thrombus are thus largely explored. As exosomes carry genetic content from cell of origin. We hypothesized that miRNAs in serum exosomes are promising regulators of AVF thrombosis.

METHODS

Serum exosomes were isolated from maintenance hemodialysis (MHD) patient, miRNAs profile of the exosomes was obtained by high throughput sequencing, six miRNAs (miR-144-5p, miR-18a-5p, miR-200a-3p, miR-200b-3p, miR-141-3p, and miR-429) were determined as candidates examined by RT-PCR, cells transfected with miR-200b-3p mimics demonstrated significantly increased mRNA levels of VEGF and Ang-II, the relationship between miR-200b-3p and VEGF or Ang-II was performed by adual luciferase reporter assay.

RESULTS

There are 43 miRNA down-regulation and 15 miRNA up-regulation between MHD group and MHD+Thrombus group, the expression levels of miR-200b-3p and miR-429 in MHD with thrombus were significantly increased (p < 0.001, p < 0.05). Inhibited miR-200b-3p expression level can increase VEGF mRNA and protein expression levels and decrease Ang-II mRNA and protein expression levels. Furthermore, we also identified that miR-200b-3p targets VEGF and Ang-II.

CONCLUSION

Our study indicates that serum exosome-derived miR-200b-3p regulate VEGF and Ang-II to increase intimal hyperplasia to induce AVF thrombosis. Besides miR-200b-3p, miR-200 family may also play a regulatory role in AVF thrombosis.

Extracellular vesicle-based drug delivery in cancer immunotherapy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a group of nanoscale membrane-bound organelles including exosomes, microvesicles (MVs), membrane particles, and apoptotic bodies, which are released from almost all eukaryotic cells. Owing to their ingredients, EVs can be employed as biomarkers for human diseases. Interestingly, EVs show favorable features as candidates for targeted drug delivery and thus, they are suggested as ideal drug carriers as well as good vaccines for various human diseases including cancer. Among various drugs loaded in EVs for targeted drug delivery, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), including antibodies against programmed cell death-1 (PD-1), programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), and cytotoxic-T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4), have attracted an increasing attention for cancer researchers and clinicians. Animal and clinical studies have shown combination of EVs and immunotherapy antibodies to improve the efficacy and reduce possible side effects in systemic administration of ICIs. In this review, we discuss the EVs and their significance in drug delivery with a focus on cancer immunotherapy agents.

Exosome, the glass slipper for Cinderella of cancer-bladder cancer?

Exosomes are lipid bilayer vesicles with a diameter of 40-100 nm secreted by almost all cells. They have been found play crucial regulatory roles in various diseases. With the development of exosomes engineering technology, exosome-based drug delivery has also rapidly evolved. Bladder cancer is a worldwide disease with high morbidity and recurrence but lack of funding, so it is also called Cinderella. Some explorations have demonstrated that exosomes are important in the development, prognosis, diagnosis and drug delivery of bladder cancer. With the rapid development of Mass spectrometry and next-generation sequencing, increasing numbers of differentially expressed molecules derived from exosomes have been found in bladder cancer. Exosomes and their contents are largely involved in bladder cancer progression, engineering of these exosomes with the targeted genes improves their potential for drug delivery of bladder cancer. Furthermore, exosomes and their contents are relate to many characteristics of bladder cancer. Herein, we briefly search 59 researches to explore the cargoes encapsuled in exosomes of bladder cancer patients. We also summarize the biogenesis, function, expression profiles, engineering approaches and biological mechanisms of exosomes and their contents for the diagnosis, prognosis and drug delivery for bladder cancer. We aim to make it clear whether exosomes are the glass slippers of Cinderella.

Revolutionizing treatment for triple-negative breast cancer: Harnessing the power of exosomal miRNAs for targeted therapy

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) represents a challenging and aggressive form of breast cancer associated with limited treatment options and poor prognosis. Although chemotherapy is a primary therapeutic approach, drug resistance often hinders treatment success. However, the expanding knowledge of TNBC subtypes and molecular biology has paved the way for targeted therapies. Notably, exosomes (extracellular vesicles) have emerged as crucial carriers of tumorigenic factors involved in oncogenesis and drug resistance, facilitating cell-to-cell communication and offering potential as self-delivery systems. Among the cargo carried by exosomes, microRNAs (miRNAs) have gained attention due to their ability to mediate epigenetic changes in recipient cells upon transfer. Research has confirmed dysregulation of exosomal miRNAs in breast cancer cells compared to healthy cells, establishing them as promising biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis. In this comprehensive review, we summarize the latest research findings that underscore the diagnostic and prognostic significance of exosomal miRNAs in TNBC treatment. Furthermore, we explore contemporary therapeutic approaches utilizing these exosomal miRNAs for the benefit of TNBC patients, shedding light on potential breakthroughs in TNBC management.

The role of non-coding RNAs in extracellular vesicles in breast cancer and their diagnostic implications

Breast Cancer (BC) is the most common form of cancer worldwide, responsible for 25% of cancers in women. Whilst treatment is effective and often curative in early BC, metastatic disease is incurable, highlighting the need for early detection. Currently, early detection relies on invasive procedures, however recent studies have shown extracellular vesicles (EVs) obtained from liquid biopsies may have clinical utility. EVs transport diverse bioactive cargos throughout the body, play major roles in intercellular communication and, importantly, mirror their cell of origin. In cancer cells, EVs alter the behaviour of the tumour microenvironment (TME), forming a bridge of communication between cancerous and non-cancerous cells to alter all aspects of cancer progression, including the formation of a pre-metastatic niche. Through gene regulatory frameworks, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) modulate vital molecular and cellular processes and can act as both tumour suppressors and oncogenic drivers in various cancer types. EVs transport and protect ncRNAs, facilitating their use clinically as liquid biopsies for early BC detection. This review summarises current research surrounding ncRNAs and EVs within BC, focusing on their roles in cancer progression through bi-directional communication with the microenvironment and their diagnostic implications. The role of EV ncRNAs in breast cancer. A representation of the different EV ncRNAs involved in tumourigenic processes in breast cancer. Pro-tumourigenic ncRNAs displayed in green and ncRNAs which inhibit oncogenic processes are shown in red.

Pathological and Therapeutic Significance of Tumor-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Cell Migration and Metastasis

The infiltration of primary tumors and metastasis formation at distant sites strongly impact the prognosis and the quality of life of cancer patients. Current therapies including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy are limited in targeting the complex cell migration mechanisms responsible for cancer cell invasiveness and metastasis. A better understanding of these mechanisms and the development of new therapies are urgently needed. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-enveloped particles involved in inter-tissue and inter-cell communication. This review article focuses on the impact of EVs released by tumor cells, specifically on cancer cell migration and metastasis. We first introduce cell migration processes and EV subtypes, and we give an overview of how tumor-derived EVs (TDEVs) may impact cancer cell migration. Then, we discuss ongoing EV-based cancer therapeutic approaches, including the inhibition of general EV-related mechanisms as well as the use of EVs for anti-cancer drug delivery, focusing on the harnessing of TDEVs. We propose a protein-EV shuttle as a route alternative to secretion or cell membrane binding, influencing downstream signaling and the final effect on target cells, with strong implications in tumorigenesis. Finally, we highlight the pitfalls and limitations of therapeutic EV exploitation that must be overcome to realize the promise of EVs for cancer therapy.

EV-miRNA-Mediated Intercellular Communication in the Breast Tumor Microenvironment

Cancer research has prioritized the study of the tumor microenvironment (TME) as a crucial area of investigation. Understanding the communication between tumor cells and the various cell types within the TME has become a focal point. Bidirectional communication processes between these cells support cellular transformation, as well as the survival, invasion, and metastatic dissemination of tumor cells. Extracellular vesicles are lipid bilayer structures secreted by cells that emerge as important mediators of this cell-to-cell communication. EVs transfer their molecular cargo, including proteins and nucleic acids, and particularly microRNAs, which play critical roles in intercellular communication. Tumor-derived EVs, for example, can promote angiogenesis and enhance endothelial permeability by delivering specific miRNAs. Moreover, adipocytes, a significant component of the breast stroma, exhibit high EV secretory activity, which can then modulate metabolic processes, promoting the growth, proliferation, and migration of tumor cells. Comprehensive studies investigating the involvement of EVs and their miRNA cargo in the TME, as well as their underlying mechanisms driving tumoral capacities, are necessary for a deeper understanding of these complex interactions. Such knowledge holds promise for the development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies in cancer treatment.

Deciphering the Functional Status of Breast Cancers through the Analysis of Their Extracellular Vesicles

Breast cancer (BC) accounts for the highest incidence of tumor-related mortality among women worldwide, justifying the growing search for molecular tools for the early diagnosis and follow-up of BC patients under treatment. Circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous nanocompartments produced by all human cells, including tumor cells. Since minimally invasive methods collect EVs, which represent reservoirs of signals for cell communication, these particles have attracted the interest of many researchers aiming to improve BC screening and treatment. Here, we analyzed the cargoes of BC-derived EVs, both proteins and nucleic acids, which yielded a comprehensive list of potential markers divided into four distinct categories, namely, (i) modulation of aggressiveness and growth; (ii) preparation of the pre-metastatic niche; (iii) epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition; and (iv) drug resistance phenotype, further classified according to their specificity and sensitivity as vesicular BC biomarkers. We discuss the therapeutic potential of and barriers to the clinical implementation of EV-based tests, including the heterogeneity of EVs and the available technologies for analyzing their content, to present a consistent, reproducible, and affordable set of markers for further evaluation.

ER Negative Breast Cancer and miRNA: There Is More to Decipher Than What the Pathologist Can See!

Breast cancer (BC), the most prevalent cancer in women, is a heterogenous disease. Despite advancements in BC diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutics, survival rates have drastically decreased in the metastatic setting. Therefore, BC still remains a medical challenge. The evolution of high-throughput technology has highlighted gaps in the classification system of BCs. Of particular interest is the notorious triple negative BC, which was recounted as being heterogenous itself and it overlaps with distinct subtypes, namely molecular apocrine (MA) and luminal androgen (LAR) BCs. These subtypes are, even today, still misdiagnosed and poorly treated. As such, researchers and clinicians have been looking for ways through which to refine BC classification in order to properly understand the initiation, development, progression, and the responses to the treatment of BCs. One tool is biomarkers and, specifically, microRNA (miRNA), which are highly reported as associated with BC carcinogenesis. In this review, the diverse roles of miRNA in estrogen receptor negative (ER-) and androgen receptor positive (AR+) BC are depicted. While highlighting their oncogenic and tumor suppressor functions in tumor progression, we will discuss their diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive biomarker potentials, as well as their drug sensitivity/resistance activity. The association of several miRNAs in the KEGG-reported pathways that are related to ER-BC carcinogenesis is presented. The identification and verification of accurate miRNA panels is a cornerstone for tackling BC classification setbacks, as is also the deciphering of the carcinogenesis regulators of ER - AR + BC.

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma-derived extracellular vesicles exert an oncogenic role by activating cancer-associated fibroblasts

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is a fast-increasing cancer with metastatic potential. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small membrane-bound vesicles that play important roles in intercellular communication, particularly in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Here we report that cSCC cells secrete an increased number of EVs relative to normal human epidermal keratinocytes (NHEKs) and that interfering with the capacity of cSCC to secrete EVs inhibits tumor growth in vivo in a xenograft model of human cSCC. Transcriptome analysis of tumor xenografts by RNA-sequencing enabling the simultaneous quantification of both the human and the mouse transcripts revealed that impaired EV-production of cSCC cells prominently altered the phenotype of stromal cells, in particular genes related to extracellular matrix (ECM)-formation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). In line with these results, co-culturing of human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) with cSCC cells, but not with normal keratinocytes in vitro resulted in acquisition of cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) phenotype. Interestingly, EVs derived from metastatic cSCC cells, but not primary cSCCs or NHEKs, were efficient in converting HDFs to CAFs. Multiplex bead-based flow cytometry assay and mass-spectrometry (MS)-based proteomic analyses revealed the heterogenous cargo of cSCC-derived EVs and that especially EVs derived from metastatic cSCCs carry proteins associated with EV-biogenesis, EMT, and cell migration. Mechanistically, EVs from metastatic cSCC cells result in the activation of TGFβ signaling in HDFs. Altogether, our study suggests that cSCC-derived EVs mediate cancer-stroma communication, in particular the conversion of fibroblasts to CAFs, which eventually contribute to cSCC progression.

The paradox of cooperation among selfish cancer cells

It is traditionally assumed that during cancer development, tumor cells abort their initially cooperative behavior (i.e., cheat) in favor of evolutionary strategies designed solely to enhance their own fitness (i.e., a "selfish" life style) at the expense of that of the multicellular organism. However, the growth and progress of solid tumors can also involve cooperation among these presumed selfish cells (which, by definition, should be noncooperative) and with stromal cells. The ultimate and proximate reasons behind this paradox are not fully understood. Here, in the light of current theories on the evolution of cooperation, we discuss the possible evolutionary mechanisms that could explain the apparent cooperative behaviors among selfish malignant cells. In addition to the most classical explanations for cooperation in cancer and in general (by-product mutualism, kin selection, direct reciprocity, indirect reciprocity, network reciprocity, group selection), we propose the idea that "greenbeard" effects are relevant to explaining some cooperative behaviors in cancer. Also, we discuss the possibility that malignant cooperative cells express or co-opt cooperative traits normally expressed by healthy cells. We provide examples where considerations of these processes could help understand tumorigenesis and metastasis and argue that this framework provides novel insights into cancer biology and potential strategies for cancer prevention and treatment.

The role of Vps4 in cancer development

VPS4 series proteins play a crucial role in the endosomal sorting complexes required for the transport (ESCRT) pathway, which is responsible for sorting and trafficking cellular proteins and is involved in various cellular processes, including cytokinesis, membrane repair, and viral budding. VPS4 proteins are ATPases that mediate the final steps of membrane fission and protein sorting as part of the ESCRT machinery. They disassemble ESCRT-III filaments, which are vital for forming multivesicular bodies (MVBs) and the release of intraluminal vesicles (ILVs), ultimately leading to the sorting and degradation of various cellular proteins, including those involved in cancer development and progression. Recent studies have shown a potential relationship between VPS4 series proteins and cancer. Evidence suggests that these proteins may have crucial roles in cancer development and progression. Several experiments have explored the association between VPS4 and different types of cancer, including gastrointestinal and reproductive system tumors, providing insight into the underlying mechanisms. Understanding the structure and function of VPS4 series proteins is critical in assessing their potential role in cancer. The evidence supporting the involvement of VPS4 series proteins in cancer provides a promising avenue for future research and therapeutic development. However, further researches are necessary to fully understand the mechanisms underlying the relationship between VPS4 series proteins and cancer and to develop effective strategies for targeting these proteins in cancer therapy. This article aims to review the structures and functions of VPS4 series proteins and the previous experiments to analyze the relationship between VPS4 series proteins and cancer.

Exosomal Long Noncoding RNAs in NSCLC: Dysfunctions and Clinical Potential

Exosomes are a typical subset of extracellular vesicles (EVs) that can be transmitted from parent cells to recipient cells via human bodily fluids. Exosomes perform a vital role in mediating intercellular communication by shuttling bioactive cargos, such as nucleic acids, proteins and lipids. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are transcripts longer than 200 nucleotides without protein translation ability and can be selectively packaged into exosomes. Accumulating evidence indicates that exosomal lncRNAs have a critical role in tumor initiation and progression through regulating tumor proliferation, apoptosis, invasion, metastasis, angiogenesis, treatment resistance and tumor microenvironment. Increasing studies suggest that exosomal lncRNAs have great potential to be served as novel targets and non-invasive biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In this review, we provide an overview of current research on the disordered functions of exosomal lncRNAs in NSCLC and summarize their potential clinical applications as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for NSCLC.

Crosstalk between long noncoding RNA and microRNA in Cancer

miRNAs and lncRNAs play a central role in cancer-associated gene regulations. The dysregulated expression of lncRNAs has been reported as a hallmark of cancer progression, acting as an independent prediction marker for an individual cancer patient. The interplay of miRNA and lncRNA decides the variation of tumorigenesis that could be mediated by acting as sponges for endogenous RNAs, regulating miRNA decay, mediating intra-chromosomal interactions, and modulating epigenetic components. This paper focuses on the influence of crosstalk between lncRNA and miRNA on cancer hallmarks such as epithelial-mesenchymal transition, hijacking cell death, metastasis, and invasion. Other cellular roles of crosstalks, such as neovascularization, vascular mimicry, and angiogenesis were also discussed. Additionally, we reviewed crosstalk mechanism with specific host immune responses and targeting interplay (between lncRNA and miRNA) in cancer diagnosis and management.

Synergistic inter-clonal cooperation involving crosstalk, co-option and co-dependency can enhance the invasiveness of genetically distant cancer clones

BACKGROUND

Despite intensive research, cancer remains a major health problem. The difficulties in treating cancer reflect the complex nature of this disease, including high levels of heterogeneity within tumours. Intra-tumour heterogeneity creates the conditions for inter-clonal competition and selection, which could result in selective sweeps and a reduction in levels of heterogeneity. However, in addition to competing, cancer clones can also cooperate with each other, and the positive effects of these interactions on the fitness of clones could actually contribute to maintaining the heterogeneity of tumours. Consequently, understanding the evolutionary mechanisms and pathways involved in such activities is of great significance for cancer treatment. This is particularly relevant for metastasis (i.e., tumor cell migration, invasion, dispersal and dissemination), which is the most lethal phase during cancer progression. To explore if and how genetically distant clones can cooperate during migration and invasion, this study used three distinct cancer cell lines with different metastatic potentials.

RESULTS

We found that (i) the conditioned media from two invasive lines (breast and lung) increased the migration and invasion potential of a poorly metastatic line (breast), and (ii) this inter-clonal cooperative interaction involved the TGF-β1 signalling pathway. Furthermore, when the less aggressive line was co-cultured with the highly metastatic breast line, the invasive potential of both lines was enhanced, and this outcome was dependent on the co-option (through TGF-β1 autocrine-paracrine signalling) of the weakly metastatic clone into expressing an enhanced malignant phenotype that benefited both clones (i.e., a "help me help you" strategy).

CONCLUSIONS

Based on our findings, we propose a model in which crosstalk, co-option, and co-dependency can facilitate the evolution of synergistic cooperative interactions between genetically distant clones. Specifically, we suggest that synergistic cooperative interactions can easily emerge, regardless of the degree of overall genetic/genealogical relatedness, via crosstalk involving metastatic clones able to constitutively secrete molecules that induce and maintain their own malignant state (producer-responder clones) and clones that have the ability to respond to those signals (responder clones) and express a synergistic metastatic behaviour. Taking into account the lack of therapies that directly affect the metastatic process, interfering with such cooperative interactions during the early steps in the metastatic cascade could provide additional strategies to increase patient survival.

Microenvironment commits breast tumor ECs to dedifferentiation by micro-RNA-200-b-3p regulation and extracellular matrix remodeling

Introduction: Hypoxia shapes the tumor microenvironment, modulates distinct cell population activities, and activates pathological angiogenesis in cancer, where endothelial cells (ECs) are the most important players. This study aimed to evidence the influences of the tumor microenvironment on the global gene expression pattern characteristic for ECs and the distinct responses displayed by tumor-derived ECs in comparison to the healthy endothelium during endothelial to mesenchymal transition (EndMT) and its regulation by miR-200-b-3p. Methodology: Immortalized lines of ECs from the same patient with breast cancer, healthy breast tissue (HBH.MEC), and primary tumor (HBCa.MEC) were used. The experiments were performed in normoxia and hypoxia for 48 h. By using the wound healing test, we investigated the migration abilities of ECs. Global gene expression analysis with NGS was carried out to detect new pathways altered in pathological ECs and find the most changed miRNAs. The validation of NGS data from RNA and miRNA was estimated by qPCRs. Mimic miR-200b-3p was used in HBH.MEC, and the targets VEGF, Bcl2, ROCK2, and SP1 were checked. Results: Hypoxia influences EC migration properties in wound healing assays. In hypoxia, healthy ECs migrate slower than they do in normoxia, as opposed to HBCa.MEC, where no decreased migration ability is induced by hypoxia due to EndMT features. NGS data identified this process to be altered in cancer ECs through extracellular matrix (ECM) organization. The deregulated genes, validated by qPCR, included SPP1, ITGB6, COL4A4, ADAMST2, LAMA1, GAS6, PECAM1, ELN, FBLN2, COL6A3, and COL9A3. NGS also identified collagens, laminins, fibronectins, and integrins, as being deregulated in tumor-derived ECs. Moreover, the analysis of the 10 most intensively modified miRNAs, when breast tumor-derived ECs were compared to healthy ECs, shed light on miR-200b-3p, which is strongly upregulated in HBCa.MECs when compared to HBH.MECs. Discussion and conclusion: The pathological ECs differed significantly, both phenotypically and functionally, from the normal corresponding tissue, thus influencing their microenvironment cross-talk. The gene expression profile confirms the EndMT phenotype of tumor-derived ECs and migratory properties acquisition. Moreover, it indicates the role of miR-200b-3p, that is, regulating EndMT in pathological ECs and silencing several angiogenic growth factors and their receptors by directly targeting their mRNA transcripts.

miRNAs as potential game-changers in bone diseases: Future medicinal and clinical uses

MicroRNAs (miRNAs), short, highly conserved non-coding RNA, influence gene expression by sequential mechanisms such as mRNA breakdown or translational repression. Many biological processes depend on these regulating substances, thus changes in their expression have an impact on the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and result in the emergence of a variety of diseases. Relevant studies have shown in recent years that miRNAs are involved in many stages of bone development and growth. Additionally, abnormal production of miRNA in bone tissues has been closely associated with the development of numerous bone disorders, such as osteonecrosis, bone cancer, and bone metastases. Many pathological processes, including bone loss, metastasis, the proliferation of osteosarcoma cells, and differentiation of osteoblasts and osteoclasts, are under the control of miRNAs. By bringing together the most up-to-date information on the clinical relevance of miRNAs in such diseases, this study hopes to further the study of the biological features of miRNAs in bone disorders and explore their potential as a therapeutic target.

Non-Coding RNAs Derived from Extracellular Vesicles Promote Pre-Metastatic Niche Formation and Tumor Distant Metastasis

Metastasis is a critical stage of tumor progression, a crucial challenge of clinical therapy, and a major cause of tumor patient death. Numerous studies have confirmed that distant tumor metastasis is dependent on the formation of pre-metastatic niche (PMN). Recent studies have shown that extracellular vesicles (EVs) play an important role in PMN formation. The non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) derived from EVs mediate PMN formation and tumor-distant metastasis by promoting an inflammatory environment, inhibiting anti-tumor immune response, inducing angiogenesis and permeability, and by microenvironmental reprogramming. Given the stability and high abundance of ncRNAs carried by EVs in body fluids, they have great potential for application in tumor diagnosis as well as targeted interventions. This review focuses on the mechanism of ncRNAs derived from EVs promoting tumor PMN formation and distant metastasis to provide a theoretical reference for strategies to control tumor metastasis.

Aged Breast Matrix Bound Vesicles Promote Breast Cancer Invasiveness

Aging is one of the inherent risk factors for breast cancer. Although the influence of age-related cellular alterations on breast cancer development has been extensively explored, little is known about the alterations in the aging breast tissue microenvironment, specifically the extracellular matrix (ECM). Here, for the first time in literature, we have identified tissue resident matrix bound vesicles (MBVs) within the healthy mouse breast ECM, investigated and compared their characteristics in young and aged healthy breast tissues, and studied the effects of these MBVs on normal (KTB21) and cancerous (MDA-MB-231) human mammary epithelial cells with respect to the tissue age that they are extracted from. Using vesicle labeling technology, we were able to visualize cellular uptake of the MBVs directly from the native decellularized tissue sections, showing that these MBVs have regulatory roles in the tissue microenvironment. We mimicked the ECM by embedding the MBVs in collagen gels, and showed that MBVs could be taken up by the cells. The miRNA and cytokine profiling showed that MBVs shifted towards a more tumorigenic and invasive phenotype with age, as evidenced by the more pronounced presence of cancer-associated cytokines, and higher expression levels of oncomiRs miR-10b, miR-30e, and miR-210 in MBVs isolated from aged mice. When treated with MBVs or these upregulated factors, KTB21 and MDA-MB-231 cells showed significantly higher motility and invasion compared to untreated controls. Treatment of cells with a cocktail of miRNAs (miR-10b, miR-30e, and miR-210) or with the agonist of adiponectin (AdipoRon), which both were enriched in the aged MBVs, recapitulated the effect of aged MBVs on cells. This study shows for the first time that the MBVs have a regulatory role in the tissue microenvironment and that the MBV contents change towards cancer-promoting upon aging. Studying the effects of MBVs and their cargos on cellular behavior could lead to a better understanding of the critical roles of MBVs played in breast cancer progression and metastasis.

Exosomes as crucial emerging tools for intercellular communication with therapeutic potential in ovarian cancer

More than two-thirds of epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) patients are diagnosed at advanced stages due to the lack of sensitive biomarkers. Currently, exosomes are intensively investigated as non-invasive cancer diagnostic markers. Exosomes are nanovesicles released in the extracellular milieu with the potential to modulate recipient cells' behavior. EOC cells release many altered exosomal cargoes that exhibit clinical relevance to tumor progression. Exosomes represent powerful therapeutic tools (drug carriers or vaccines), posing a promising option in clinical practice for curing EOC in the near future. In this review, we highlight the importance of exosomes in cell–cell communication, epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), and their potential to serve as diagnostic and prognostic factors, particularly in EOC.

Using a human bronchial epithelial cell-based malignant transformation model to explore the function of hsa-miR-200 family in the progress of PM2.5-induced lung cancer development

Numerous studies have revealed that ambient long-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) is significantly related to the development of lung cancer, but the molecular mechanisms of PM_2.5 exposure-induced lung cancer remains unknown. As an important epigenetic regulator, microRNAs (miRNAs) play vital roles in responding to environment exposure and various diseases including lung cancer development. Here we constructed a PM_2.5-induced malignant transformed cell model and found that miR-200 family, especially miR-200a-3p, was involved in the process of PM_2.5 induced lung cancer. Further investigation of the function of miR-200 family (miR-200a-3p as a representative revealed that miR-200a-3p promoted cell migration by directly suppressing TNS3 expression. These results suggested that ambient PM_2.5 exposure may increase the expression of miR-200 family and then promote the proliferation and migration of lung cancer cells. Our study provided novel model and insights into the molecular mechanism of ambient PM_2.5 exposure-induced lung cancer.

Formation of pre-metastatic niches induced by tumor extracellular vesicles in lung metastasis

There are a number of malignant tumors that metastasize into the lung as one of their most common sites of dissemination. The successful infiltration of tumor cells into distant organs is the result of the cooperation between tumor cells and distant host cells. When tumor cells have not yet reached distant organs, in situ tumor cells secrete extracellular vesicles (EVs) carrying important biological information. In recent years, scholars have found that tumor cells-derived EVs act as the bridge between orthotopic tumors and secondary metastases by promoting the formation of a pre-metastatic niche (PMN), which plays a key role in awakening dormant circulating tumor cells and promoting tumor cell colonization. This review provides an overview of multiple routes and mechanisms underlying PMN formation induced by EVs and summaries study findings that underline a potential role of EVs in the intervention of lung PMN, both as a target or a carrier for drug design. In this review, the underlying mechanisms of EVs in lung PMN formation are highlighted as well as potential applications to lung metastasis diagnosis and treatment.

The Role of Exosomes in Human Carcinogenesis and Cancer Therapy-Recent Findings from Molecular and Clinical Research

Exosomes are biological nanoscale spherical lipid bilayer vesicles, 40-160 nm in diameter, produced by most mammalian cells in both physiological and pathological conditions. Exosomes are formed via the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT). The primary function of exosomes is mediating cell-to-cell communication. In terms of cancer, exosomes play important roles as mediators of intercellular communication, leading to tumor progression. Moreover, they can serve as biomarkers for cancer detection and progression. Therefore, their utilization in cancer therapies has been suggested, either as drug delivery carriers or as a diagnostic tool. However, exosomes were also reported to be involved in cancer drug resistance via transferring information of drug resistance to sensitive cells. It is important to consider the current knowledge regarding the role of exosomes in cancer, drug resistance, cancer therapies, and their clinical application in cancer therapies.

Exosomes and cancer immunotherapy: A review of recent cancer research

As phospholipid extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by various cells, exosomes contain non-coding RNA (ncRNA), mRNA, DNA fragments, lipids, and proteins, which are essential for intercellular communication. Several types of cells can secrete exosomes that contribute to cancer initiation and progression. Cancer cells and the immune microenvironment interact and restrict each other. Tumor-derived exosomes (TDEs) have become essential players in this balance because they carry information from the original cancer cells and express complexes of MHC class I/II epitopes and costimulatory molecules. In the present study, we aimed to identify potential targets for exosome therapy by examining the specific expression and mechanism of exosomes derived from cancer cells. We introduced TDEs and explored their role in different tumor immune microenvironment (TIME), with a particular emphasis on gastrointestinal cancers, before briefly describing the therapeutic strategies of exosomes in cancer immune-related therapy.

MiRNAs and snoRNAs in Bone Metastasis: Functional Roles and Clinical Potential

Bone is a frequent site of metastasis. Bone metastasis is associated with a short-term prognosis in cancer patients, and current treatments aim to slow its growth, but are rarely curative. Thus, revealing molecular mechanisms that explain why metastatic cells are attracted to the bone micro-environment, and how they successfully settle in the bone marrow-taking advantage over bone resident cells-and grow into macro-metastasis, is essential to propose new therapeutic approaches. MicroRNAs and snoRNAs are two classes of small non-coding RNAs that post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression. Recently, microRNAs and snoRNAs have been pointed out as important players in bone metastasis by (i) preparing the pre-metastatic niche, directly and indirectly affecting the activities of osteoclasts and osteoblasts, (ii) promoting metastatic properties within cancer cells, and (iii) acting as mediators within cells to support cancer cell growth in bone. This review aims to highlight the importance of microRNAs and snoRNAs in metastasis, specifically in bone, and how their roles can be linked together. We then discuss how microRNAs and snoRNAs are secreted by cancer cells and be found as extracellular vesicle cargo. Finally, we provide evidence of how microRNAs and snoRNAs can be potential therapeutic targets, at least in pre-clinical settings, and how their detection in liquid biopsies can be a useful diagnostic and/or prognostic biomarker to predict the risk of relapse in cancer patients.

N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase-V (GnT-V)-enriched small extracellular vesicles mediate N-glycan remodeling in recipient cells

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) secreted from cancer cells play pivotal roles in cancer metastasis and malignancy by transferring biomolecules and conditioning future metastatic sites. Studies have elucidated structures and functions of glycans on sEVs; however, whether sEVs remodel glycans in recipient cells remains poorly understood. Here, we examined the enzyme activity of glycosyltransferases for complex N-glycan biosynthesis in cancer-derived sEVs and discovered that cancer-related glycosyltransferase, N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase-V (GnT-V, a.k.a. MGAT5), is selectively enriched in sEVs among various glycosyltransferases. GnT-V in sEVs is a cleaved form, and cleavage by SPPL3 protease is necessary for loading GnT-V in sEVs. Fractionation experiments and single-particle imaging further revealed that GnT-V was enriched in non-exosomal sEVs. Strikingly, we found that enzymatically active GnT-V in sEVs was transferred to recipient cells and the N-glycan structures of recipient cells were remodeled to express GnT-V-produced glycans. Our results suggest GnT-V-enriched sEVs' role in glycan remodeling in cancer metastasis.

Hypothesis: can transfer of primary neoplasm-derived extracellular vesicles and mitochondria contribute to the development of donor cell-derived hematologic neoplasms after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation?

Allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo-HCT) is an essential treatment option for various neoplastic and non-neoplastic hematologic diseases. Although its efficacy is modest, a significant proportion of patients experience relapse, graft-versus-host disease, infection or impaired hematopoiesis. Among these, the most frequent cause of post-transplant mortality is relapse, whereas the development of de novo hematologic neoplasms from donor cells after allo-HCT occurs on some occasion as a rare complication. The mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of the de novo hematologic neoplasms from donor cells are complex, and a multifactorial process contributes to the development of this complication. Recently, extracellular vesicles, particularly exosomes, and mitochondria have been shown to play crucial roles in intercellular communication through the transfer of specific constituents, such as deoxyribonucleic acids, ribonucleic acids, lipids, metabolites and cytosolic and cell-surface proteins. Here, I discuss the potential causative roles of these subcellular components in the development of de novo hematologic neoplasms from donor cells after allo-HCT, in addition to other etiologies.

Extracellular vesicles in cancer therapy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including a variety of membrane-enclosed nanosized particles carrying cell-derived cargo, mediate a major type of intercellular communication in physiological and pathological processes. Both cancer and non-cancer cells secrete EVs, which can travel to and influence various types of cells at the primary tumor site as well as in distant organs. Tumor-derived EVs contribute to cancer cell plasticity and resistance to therapy, adaptation of tumor microenvironment, local and systemic vascular remodeling, immunomodulation, and establishment of pre-metastatic niches. Therefore, targeting the production, uptake, and function of tumor-derived EVs has emerged as a new strategy for stand-alone or combinational therapy of cancer. On the other hand, as EV cargo partially reflects the genetic makeup and phenotypic properties of the secreting cell, EV-based biomarkers that can be detected in biofluids are being developed for cancer diagnosis and for predicting and monitoring tumor response to therapy. Meanwhile, EVs from presumably safe sources are being developed as delivery vehicles for anticancer therapeutic agents and as anticancer vaccines. Numerous reviews have discussed the biogenesis and characteristics of EVs and their functions in cancer. Here, I highlight recent advancements in translation of EV research outcome towards improved care of cancer, including developments of non-invasive EV-based biomarkers and therapeutic agents targeting tumor-derived EVs as well as engineering of therapeutic EVs.

Extracellular Vesicles and Membrane Protrusions in Developmental Signaling

During embryonic development, cells communicate with each other to determine cell fate, guide migration, and shape morphogenesis. While the relevant secreted factors and their downstream target genes have been characterized extensively, how these signals travel between embryonic cells is still emerging. Evidence is accumulating that extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are well defined in cell culture and cancer, offer a crucial means of communication in embryos. Moreover, the release and/or reception of EVs is often facilitated by fine cellular protrusions, which have a history of study in development. However, due in part to the complexities of identifying fragile nanometer-scale extracellular structures within the three-dimensional embryonic environment, the nomenclature of developmental EVs and protrusions can be ambiguous, confounding progress. In this review, we provide a robust guide to categorizing these structures in order to enable comparisons between developmental systems and stages. Then, we discuss existing evidence supporting a role for EVs and fine cellular protrusions throughout development.

Small extracellular vesicles: from promoting pre-metastatic niche formation to therapeutic strategies in breast cancer

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in females, and to date, the mortality rate of breast cancer metastasis cannot be ignored. The metastasis of breast cancer is a complex, staged process, and the pattern of metastatic spread is not random. The pre-metastatic niche, as an organ-specific home for metastasis, is a favourable environment for tumour cell colonization. As detection techniques improve, the role of the pre-metastatic niche in breast cancer metastasis is being uncovered. sEVs (small extracellular vesicles) can deliver cargo, which is vital for the formation of pre-metastatic niches. sEVs participate in multiple aspects of creating a distant microenvironment to promote tumour invasion, including the secretion of inflammatory molecules, immunosuppression, angiogenesis and enhancement of vascular permeability, as well as regulation of the stromal environment. Here, we discuss the multifaceted mechanisms through which breast cancer-derived sEVs contribute to pre-metastatic niches. In addition, sEVs as biomarkers and antimetastatic therapies are also discussed, particularly their use in transporting exosomal microRNAs. The study of sEVs may provide insight into immunotherapy and targeted therapies for breast cancer, and we also provide an overview of their potential role in antitumour metastasis.

Adipose tissue-to-breast cancer crosstalk: Comprehensive insights

The review focuses on mechanistic evidence for the link between obesity and breast cancer. According to the IARC study, there is sufficient evidence that obesity is closely related to a variety of cancers. Among them, breast cancer is particularly disturbed by adipose tissue due to the unique histological structure of the breast. The review introduces the relationship between obesity and breast cancer from two aspects, including factors that promote tumorigenesis or metastasis. We summarize alterations in adipokines and metabolic pathways that contribute to breast cancer development. Breast cancer metastasis is closely related to obesity-induced pro-inflammatory microenvironment, adipose stem cells, and miRNAs. Based on the mechanism by which obesity causes breast cancer, we list possible therapeutic directions, including reducing the risk of breast cancer and inhibiting the progression of breast cancer. We also discussed the risk of autologous breast remodeling and fat transplantation. Finally, the causes of the obesity paradox and the function of enhancing immunity are discussed. Evaluating the balance between obesity-induced inflammation and enhanced immunity warrants further study.

Exosome application in treatment and diagnosis of B-cell disorders: leukemias, multiple sclerosis, and arthritis rheumatoid

Exosomes, known as a type of extracellular vesicles (EVs), are lipid particles comprising heterogeneous contents such as nucleic acids, proteins, and DNA. These bi-layered particles are naturally released into the extracellular periphery by a variety of cells such as neoplastic cells. Given that exosomes have unique properties, they can be used as vectors and carriers of biological and medicinal particles like drugs for delivering to the desired areas. The proteins and RNAs being encompassed by the circulating exosomes in B-cell malignancies are deemed as the promising sources for diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, as well as therapeutic agents. Exosomes can also provide a "snapshot" view of the tumor and metastatic landscape at any particular time. Further, clinical research has shown that exosomes are produced by immune cells such as dendritic cells can stimulate the immune system, so these exosomes can be used in antitumor vaccines. Despite the great potential of exosomes in the fields of diagnostic and treatment, further studies are in need for these purposes to reach a convergence notion. This review highlights the applications of exosomes in multiple immune-related diseases, including chronic lymphocytic leukemia, multiple sclerosis, and arthritis rheumatoid, as well as explaining sundry aspects of exosome therapy and the function of exosomes in diagnosing diseases.

Circulating miR-200 Family and CTCs in Metastatic Breast Cancer before, during, and after a New Line of Systemic Treatment

The extracellular circulating microRNA (miR)-200 regulates epithelial-mesenchymal transition and, thus, plays an essential role in the metastatic cascade and has shown itself to be a promising prognostic and predictive biomarker in metastatic breast cancer (MBC). Expression levels of the plasma miR-200 family were analyzed in relationship to systemic treatment, circulating tumor cells (CTC) count, progression-free survival (PFS), and overall survival (OS). Expression of miR-200a, miR-200b, miR-200c, miR-141, and miR-429, and CTC status (CTC-positive ≥ 5 CTC/7.5 mL) was assessed in 47 patients at baseline (BL), after the first completed cycle of a new line of systemic therapy (1C), and upon the progression of disease (PD). MiR-200a, miR-200b, and miR-141 expression was reduced at 1C compared to BL. Upon PD, all miR-200s were upregulated compared to 1C. At all timepoints, the levels of miR-200s were elevated in CTC-positive versus CTC-negative patients. Further, heightened miR-200s expression and positive CTC status were associated with poorer OS at BL and 1C. In MBC patients, circulating miR-200 family members decreased after one cycle of a new line of systemic therapy, were elevated during PD, and were indicative of CTC status. Notably, increased levels of miR-200s and elevated CTC count correlated with poorer OS and PFS. As such, both are promising biomarkers for optimizing the clinical management of MBC.

αvβ1 integrin is enriched in extracellular vesicles of metastatic breast cancer cells: A mechanism mediated by galectin-3

Breast cancer cells release a large quantity of biocargo-bearing extracellular vesicles (EVs), which mediate intercellular communication within the tumour microenvironment and promote metastasis. To identify EV-bound proteins related to metastasis, we used mass spectrometry to profile EVs from highly and poorly metastatic breast cancer lines of human and mouse origins. Comparative mass spectrometry indicated that integrins, including αv and β1 subunits, are preferentially enriched in EVs of highly metastatic origin over those of poorly metastatic origin. These results are consistent with our histopathological findings, which show that integrin αv is associated with disease progression in breast cancer patients. Integrin αv colocalizes with the multivesicular-body marker CD63 at a higher frequency in the tumour and is enriched in circulating EVs of breast cancer patients at late stages when compared with circulating EVs from early-stage patients. With a magnetic bead-based flow cytometry assay, we confirmed that integrins αv and β1 are enriched in the CD63⁺ subsets of EVs from both human and mouse highly metastatic cells. By analysing the level of integrin αv on circulating EVs, this assay could predict the metastatic potential of a xenografted mouse model. To explore the export mechanism of integrins into EVs, we performed immunoprecipitation mass spectrometry and identified members of the galectin family as potential shuttlers of integrin αvβ1 into EVs. In particular, knockdown of galectin-3, but not galectin-1, causes a reduction in the levels of cell surface integrins β1 and αv, and decreases the colocalization of these integrins with CD63. Importantly, knockdown of galectin-3 leads to a decrease of integrin αvβ1 export into the EVs concomitant with a decrease in the metastatic potential of breast cancer cells. Moreover, inhibition of the integrin αvβ1 complex leads to a reduction in the binding of EVs to fibronectin, suggesting that integrin αvβ1 is important for EV retention in the extracellular matrix. EVs retained in the extracellular matrix are taken up by fibroblasts, which differentiate into cancer associated fibroblasts. In summary, our data indicate an important link between EV-bound integrin αvβ1 with breast cancer metastasis and provide additional insights into the export of integrin αvβ1 into EVs in the context of metastasis.

Exosomal microRNA-25 released from cancer cells targets SIK1 to promote hepatocellular carcinoma tumorigenesis

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is recognized as a leading cause of cancer-associated fatality worldwide. Our study here aimed to probe the mechanism by which exosomes secreted by CSQT-2, an HCC cell line, affected the progression of HCC.

METHODS

Exosomes were extracted from CSQT-2 cells. Colony formation, Transwell, sphere formation and flow cytometric analyses were applied to assess cell biological activities. Microarray analysis detected the change of microRNA (miRNA) expression after exosome treatment, followed by RT-qPCR validation. Luciferase reporter was applied to detect the binding between SIK1 and miR-25. Xenograft studies in nude mice manifested tumor growth and metastatic ability of miR-25 and SIK1.

RESULTS

The exosome treatment enhanced cell malignant phenotype in vitro and tumor growth and liver and lung metastases in vivo. The exosomes elevated miR-25 expression in HCC cells. miR-25 targeted SIK1 which was decreased in the exosomes-treated cells. miR-25 inhibitor reduced cell malignant phenotype and attenuated tumorigenesis and metastasis in vivo. SIK1 silencing reversed the effect of miR-25 inhibitor. The exosome treatment potentiated the Wnt/β-catenin pathway in cells, whereas miR-25 inhibitor blunted the pathway activity.

CONCLUSION

MiR-25 shuttled through CSQT-2-derived exosomes promoted the development of HCC by reducing SIK1 expression and potentiating the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.