1
|
Childress A. Recent advances in pharmacological management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: moving beyond stimulants. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2024:1-14. [PMID: 38771653 DOI: 10.1080/14656566.2024.2358987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurobehavioral disorder characterized by impairing inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity in children and adults. Although medications have been available to treat ADHD symptoms for decades, many are stimulant formulations. Stimulants, such as amphetamine and methylphenidate, are available in more than two dozen formulations, but all have similar adverse effects and carry a risk of misuse and dependence. AREAS COVERED In the United States (US), several nonstimulants are available to treat ADHD. Two, including atomoxetine and viloxazine extended-release (ER), are approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of ADHD in children and adults. Two others, clonidine ER and guanfacine ER, are only approved for children and adolescents in the US. Several other compounds are under investigation. Drugs in Phase 3 trials include centanafadine, solriamfetol, and L-threonic acid magnesium salt. Efficacy and safety data for nonstimulants is presented. EXPERT OPINION Although many effective formulations for the treatment of ADHD are available, more than 33% of children and 50% of adults discontinue treatment during the first year. The lack of individual drug response and tolerability are reasons many stop treatment. The development of new nonstimulants may offer hope for patients who need medication alternatives.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ann Childress
- Center for Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Inc, Las Vegas, NV, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
de Cássia Collaço R, Lammens M, Blevins C, Rodgers K, Gurau A, Yamauchi S, Kim C, Forrester J, Liu E, Ha J, Mei Y, Boehm C, Wohler E, Sobreira N, Rowe PC, Valle D, Brock MV, Bosmans F. Anxiety and dysautonomia symptoms in patients with a Na V1.7 mutation and the potential benefits of low-dose short-acting guanfacine. Clin Auton Res 2024; 34:191-201. [PMID: 38064009 DOI: 10.1007/s10286-023-01004-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Guanfacine is an α2A-adrenergic receptor agonist, FDA-approved to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and high blood pressure, typically as an extended-release formulation up to 7 mg/day. In our dysautonomia clinic, we observed that off-label use of short-acting guanfacine at 1 mg/day facilitated symptom relief in two families with multiple members presenting with severe generalized anxiety. We also noted anecdotal improvements in associated dysautonomia symptoms such as hyperhidrosis, cognitive impairment, and palpitations. We postulated that a genetic deficit existed in these patients that might augment guanfacine susceptibility. METHODS We used whole-exome sequencing to identify mutations in patients with shared generalized anxiety and dysautonomia symptoms. Guanfacine-induced changes in the function of voltage-gated Na+ channels were investigated using voltage-clamp electrophysiology. RESULTS Whole-exome sequencing uncovered the p.I739V mutation in SCN9A in the proband of two nonrelated families. Moreover, guanfacine inhibited ionic currents evoked by wild-type and mutant NaV1.7 encoded by SCN9A, as well as other NaV channel subtypes to a varying degree. CONCLUSION Our study provides further evidence for a possible pathophysiological role of NaV1.7 in anxiety and dysautonomia. Combined with off-target effects on NaV channel function, daily administration of 1 mg short-acting guanfacine may be sufficient to normalize NaV channel mutation-induced changes in sympathetic activity, perhaps aided by partial inhibition of NaV1.7 or other channel subtypes. In a broader context, expanding genetic and functional data about ion channel aberrations may enable the prospect of stratifying patients in which mutation-induced increased sympathetic tone normalization by guanfacine can support treatment strategies for anxiety and dysautonomia symptoms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rita de Cássia Collaço
- Molecular Physiology and Neurophysics Group, Department of Basic and Applied Medical Sciences, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Maxime Lammens
- Molecular Physiology and Neurophysics Group, Department of Basic and Applied Medical Sciences, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Carley Blevins
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kristen Rodgers
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Andrei Gurau
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Suguru Yamauchi
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Christine Kim
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jeannine Forrester
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Edward Liu
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jinny Ha
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yuping Mei
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Corrine Boehm
- McKusick-Nathans Department of Genetic Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Elizabeth Wohler
- McKusick-Nathans Department of Genetic Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Nara Sobreira
- McKusick-Nathans Department of Genetic Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Peter C Rowe
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David Valle
- McKusick-Nathans Department of Genetic Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Malcolm V Brock
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Frank Bosmans
- Molecular Physiology and Neurophysics Group, Department of Basic and Applied Medical Sciences, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Milivojevic V, Sinha R. Laboratory and Real-World Experimental Approaches to Understanding Alcohol Relapse. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2023. [PMID: 37985542 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2023_456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
Alcohol use disorder is highly prevalent and high risk of relapse remains a significant treatment challenge. Therefore, the utility of human laboratory models of relapse to further the understanding of psychobiological mechanisms that precipitate relapse risk and allow testing of novel interventions could be of benefit in expediting the development of effective treatments to target high relapse risk. Stress is a risk factor for the development of AUD and for relapse, and furthermore, chronic alcohol use leads to adaptations in central and peripheral stress biology. Here, we review our efforts to assess the integrity of these stress pathways in individuals with alcohol use disorder and whether adaptations in these systems play a role in relapse risk. Using validated human laboratory procedures to model two of the most common situations that contribute to relapse risk, namely stress and alcohol cues, we review how such models in the laboratory can predict subsequent relapse, and how we can measure specific identified biobehavioral markers of relapse effectively and ecologically in the real world. Finally, we discuss the significant implications of these findings for the development of novel and effective interventions that target stress dysregulation and craving as risk factors to treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Verica Milivojevic
- Department of Psychiatry, The Yale Stress Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Rajita Sinha
- Department of Psychiatry, The Yale Stress Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Fox HC, Milivojevic V, Sinha R. Therapeutics for Substance-Using Women: The Need to Elucidate Sex-Specific Targets for Better-Tailored Treatments. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2023; 282:127-161. [PMID: 37592081 DOI: 10.1007/164_2023_687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
In the last decade, alcohol consumption in the US has risen by 84% in women compared with 35% in men. Furthermore, research has shown that sex- and gender-related differences may disadvantage women in terms of developing a range of psychological, cognitive, and medical problems considerably earlier in their drinking history than men, and despite consuming a similar quantity of substances. While this "telescoping" process has been acknowledged in the literature, a concomitant understanding of the underlying biobehavioral mechanisms, and an increase in the development of specific treatments tailored to women, has not occurred. In the current chapter we focus on understanding why the need for personalized, sex-specific medications is imperative, and highlight some of the potential sex-specific gonadal and stress-related adaptations underpinning the accelerated progress from controlled to compulsive drug and alcohol seeking in women. We additionally discuss the efficacy of these mechanisms as novel targets for medications development, using exogenous progesterone and guanfacine as examples. Finally, we assess some of the challenges faced and progress made in terms of developing innovative medications in women. We suggest that agents such as exogenous progesterone and adrenergic medications, such as guanfacine, may provide some efficacy in terms of attenuating stress-induced craving for several substances, as well as improving the ability to emotionally regulate in the face of stress, preferentially in women. However, to fully leverage the potential of these therapeutics in substance-using women, greater focus needs to the placed on reducing barriers to treatment and research by encouraging women into clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helen C Fox
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA.
| | - Verica Milivojevic
- The Yale Stress Center, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Rajita Sinha
- The Yale Stress Center, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lassi DLS, Malbergier A, Negrão AB, Florio L, De Aquino JP, Castaldelli-Maia JM. Pharmacological Treatments for Cocaine Craving: What Is the Way Forward? A Systematic Review. Brain Sci 2022; 12:1546. [PMID: 36421870 PMCID: PMC9688748 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12111546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND cocaine craving is a core feature of cocaine use disorder and remains a critical challenge for abstinence and relapse prevention. This review summarizes the anti-craving efficacy of pharmacotherapies tested for cocaine use disorder, in the context of randomized-controlled clinical trials. OBJECTIVES we assessed the databases of the U.S. National Library of Medicine, Google Scholar, and PsycINFO, without date restrictions up to August 2022, to identify relevant studies. STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA, PARTICIPANTS, AND INTERVENTIONS we included double-blinded randomized-controlled trials investigating pharmacotherapies for cocaine craving and/or cocaine use disorder whose outcomes included cocaine craving. STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS Two authors screened studies' titles and abstracts for inclusion, and both read all the included studies. We systematically gathered information on the following aspects of each study: title; author(s); year of publication; sample size; mean age; sample characteristics; study set-ting; whether participants were treatment-seeking; study design; craving measures; study interventions; drop-out rates; and other relevant outcomes. RESULTS Overall, we appraised 130 clinical trials, including 8137 participants. We further considered the drugs from the studies that scored equal to or greater than six points in the quality assessment. There was a correlation between craving and cocaine use outcomes (self-reports, timeline follow-back or urinary benzoylecgonine) in the vast majority of studies. In the short-term treatment, acute phenylalanine-tyrosine depletion, clonidine, fenfluramine, meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (m-CPP) and mecamylamine presented promising effects. In the long term, amphetamine, biperiden, carbamazepine, lisdexamfetamine, lorcaserin, methamphetamine, mirtazapine, pioglitazone, progesterone, guanfacine, levodopa, nefazodone presented promising anti-craving effects. Unfortunately, the highly tested medications were not successful in most of the trials, as follows: propranolol in the short term; amantadine, aripiprazole, bromocriptine, citicoline, ketamine, modafinil, olanzapine, topiramate in the long term. The remaining 52 medications had no positive anti-craving outcomes. LIMITATIONS Our review was limited by high heterogeneity of craving assessments across the studies and by a great range of pharmacotherapies. Further, the majority of the studies considered abstinence and retention in treatment as the main outcomes, whereas craving was a secondary outcome and some of the studies evaluated patients with cocaine use disorder with comorbidities such as opioid or alcohol use disorder, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity. Lastly, most of the studies also included non-pharmacological treatments, such as counseling or psychotherapy. CONCLUSIONS There is a direct association between craving and cocaine use, underscoring craving as an important treatment target for promoting abstinence among persons with cocaine use disorder. Clonidine, fenfluramine and m-CPP showed to be promising medications for cocaine craving in the short-term treatment, and amphetamine, biperiden, carbamazepine, lisdexamfetamine, lorcaserin, methamphetamine, mirtazapine, pioglitazone, progesterone, guanfacine, levodopa, nefazodone in the long-term treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dângela Layne Silva Lassi
- Interdisciplinary Group of Alcohol and Drug Studies (GREA), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05403-010, SP, Brazil
| | - André Malbergier
- Interdisciplinary Group of Alcohol and Drug Studies (GREA), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05403-010, SP, Brazil
| | - André Brooking Negrão
- Interdisciplinary Group of Alcohol and Drug Studies (GREA), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05403-010, SP, Brazil
| | - Lígia Florio
- Interdisciplinary Group of Alcohol and Drug Studies (GREA), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05403-010, SP, Brazil
| | - João P. De Aquino
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - João Maurício Castaldelli-Maia
- Interdisciplinary Group of Alcohol and Drug Studies (GREA), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05403-010, SP, Brazil
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical School, ABC Health University Center, Santo André 09060-870, SP, Brazil
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Alcohol’s Negative Emotional Side: The Role of Stress Neurobiology in Alcohol Use Disorder. Alcohol Res 2022; 42:12. [PMID: 36338609 PMCID: PMC9621746 DOI: 10.35946/arcr.v42.1.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
This article is part of a Festschrift commemorating the 50th anniversary of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Established in 1970, first as part of the National Institute of Mental Health and later as an independent institute of the National Institutes of Health, NIAAA today is the world’s largest funding agency for alcohol research. In addition to its own intramural research program, NIAAA supports the entire spectrum of innovative basic, translational, and clinical research to advance the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of alcohol use disorder and alcohol-related problems. To celebrate the anniversary, NIAAA hosted a 2-day symposium, “Alcohol Across the Lifespan: 50 Years of Evidence-Based Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment Research,” devoted to key topics within the field of alcohol research. This article is based on Dr. Sinha’s presentation at the event. NIAAA Director George F. Koob, Ph.D., serves as editor of the Festschrift.
Collapse
|
7
|
An ensemble recruited by α 2a-adrenergic receptors is engaged in a stressor-specific manner in mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 2022:10.1038/s41386-022-01442-x. [PMID: 36085168 PMCID: PMC10267140 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-022-01442-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
α2a-adrenergic receptor (α2a-AR) agonists are candidate substance use disorder therapeutics due to their ability to recruit noradrenergic autoreceptors to dampen stress system engagement. However, we recently found that postsynaptic α2a-ARs are required for stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine-conditioned behavior. Understanding the ensembles recruited by these postsynaptic receptors (heteroceptors) is necessary to understand noradrenergic circuit control. We utilized a variety of approaches in FosTRAP (Targeted Recombination in Active Populations) mice to define an ensemble of cells activated by the α2a-AR partial agonist guanfacine ("Guansembles") in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST/BNST), a region key to stress-induced reinstatement of drug seeking. We define BNST "Guansembles" and show they differ from restraint stress-activated cells. Guanfacine produced inhibition of cAMP-dependent signaling in Guansembles, while chronic restraint stress increased cAMP-dependent signaling. Guanfacine both excited and inhibited aspects of Guansemble neuronal activity. Further, while some stressors produced overall reductions in Guansemble activity, active coping events during restraint stress and exposure to unexpected shocks were both associated with Guansemble recruitment. Using viral tracing, we define a BNST Guansemble afferent network that includes regions involved in the interplay of stress and homeostatic functions. Finally, we show that activation of Guansembles produces alterations in behavior on the elevated plus maze consistent with task-specific anxiety-like behavior. Overall, we define a population of BNST neurons recruited by α2a-AR signaling that opposes the behavioral action of canonical autoreceptor α2a-AR populations and which are differentially recruited by distinct stressors. Moreover, we demonstrate stressor-specific physiological responses in a specific neuronal population.
Collapse
|
8
|
Role of alpha-2 adrenergic and kappa opioid receptors in the effects of alcohol gavage-induced dependence on alcohol seeking. Behav Brain Res 2022; 434:114032. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.114032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
9
|
McKee SA, McRae-Clark AL. Consideration of sex and gender differences in addiction medication response. Biol Sex Differ 2022; 13:34. [PMID: 35761351 PMCID: PMC9235243 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-022-00441-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Substance use continues to contribute to significant morbidity and mortality in the United States, for both women and men, more so than another other preventable health condition. To reduce the public health burden attributable to substances, the National Institute on Drug Abuse and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism have identified that medication development for substance use disorder is a high priority research area. Furthermore, both Institutes have stated that research on sex and gender differences in substance use medication development is a critical area. The purpose of the current narrative review is to highlight how sex and gender have been considered (or not) in medication trials for substance use disorders to clarify and summarize what is known regarding sex and gender differences in efficacy and to provide direction to the field to advance medication development that is consistent with current NIH 'sex as a biological variable' (SABV) policy. To that end, we reviewed major classes of abused substances (nicotine, alcohol, cocaine, cannabis, opioids) demonstrating that, sex and gender have not been well-considered in addiction medication development research. However, when adequate data on sex and gender differences have been evaluated (i.e., in tobacco cessation), clinically significant differences in response have been identified between women and men. Across the other drugs of abuse reviewed, data also suggest sex and gender may be predictive of outcome for some agents, although the relatively low representation of women in clinical research samples limits making definitive conclusions. We recommend the incorporation of sex and gender into clinical care guidelines and improved access to publicly available sex-stratified data from medication development investigations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sherry A. McKee
- grid.47100.320000000419368710Yale School of Medicine, 2 Church St South, Suite 109, New Haven, CT 06519 USA
| | - Aimee L. McRae-Clark
- grid.259828.c0000 0001 2189 3475Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Martin EL, Doncheck EM, Reichel CM, McRae-Clark AL. Consideration of sex as a biological variable in the translation of pharmacotherapy for stress-associated drug seeking. Neurobiol Stress 2021; 15:100364. [PMID: 34345636 PMCID: PMC8319013 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2021.100364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress is a frequent precipitant of relapse to drug use. Pharmacotherapies targeting a diverse array of neural systems have been assayed for efficacy in attenuating stress-induced drug-seeking in both rodents and in humans, but none have shown enough evidence of utility to warrant routine use in the clinic. We posit that a critical barrier in effective translation is inattention to sex as a biological variable at all phases of the research process. In this review, we detail the neurobiological systems implicated in stress-induced relapse to cocaine, opioids, methamphetamine, and cannabis, as well as the pharmacotherapies that have been used to target these systems in rodent models, the human laboratory, and in clinical trials. In each of these areas we additionally describe the potential influences of biological sex on outcomes, and how inattention to fundamental sex differences can lead to biases during drug development that contribute to the limited success of large clinical trials. Based on these observations, we determine that of the pharmacotherapies discussed only α2-adrenergic receptor agonists and oxytocin have a body of research with sufficient consideration of biological sex to warrant further clinical evaluation. Pharmacotherapies that target β-adrenergic receptors, other neuroactive peptides, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, neuroactive steroids, and the endogenous opioid and cannabinoid systems require further assessment in females at the preclinical and human laboratory levels before progression to clinical trials can be recommended.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erin L Martin
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Doncheck
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Carmela M Reichel
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Aimee L McRae-Clark
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Caccamise A, Van Newenhizen E, Mantsch JR. Neurochemical mechanisms and neurocircuitry underlying the contribution of stress to cocaine seeking. J Neurochem 2021; 157:1697-1713. [PMID: 33660857 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In individuals with substance use disorders, stress is a critical determinant of relapse susceptibility. In some cases, stressors directly trigger cocaine use. In others, stressors interact with other stimuli to promote drug seeking, thereby setting the stage for relapse. Here, we review the mechanisms and neurocircuitry that mediate stress-triggered and stress-potentiated cocaine seeking. Stressors trigger cocaine seeking by activating noradrenergic projections originating in the lateral tegmentum that innervate the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to produce beta adrenergic receptor-dependent regulation of neurons that release corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) into the ventral tegmental area (VTA). CRF promotes the activation of VTA dopamine neurons that innervate the prelimbic prefrontal cortex resulting in D1 receptor-dependent excitation of a pathway to the nucleus accumbens core that mediates cocaine seeking. The stage-setting effects of stress require glucocorticoids, which exert rapid non-canonical effects at several sites within the mesocorticolimbic system. In the nucleus accumbens, corticosterone attenuates dopamine clearance via the organic cation transporter 3 to promote dopamine signaling. In the prelimbic cortex, corticosterone mobilizes the endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), which produces CB1 receptor-dependent reductions in inhibitory transmission, thereby increasing excitability of neurons which comprise output pathways responsible for cocaine seeking. Factors that influence the role of stress in cocaine seeking, including prior history of drug use, biological sex, chronic stress/co-morbid stress-related disorders, adolescence, social variables, and genetics are discussed. Better understanding when and how stress contributes to drug seeking should guide the development of more effective interventions, particularly for those whose drug use is stress related.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Caccamise
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Erik Van Newenhizen
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - John R Mantsch
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Drug addiction co-morbidity with alcohol: Neurobiological insights. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2021; 157:409-472. [PMID: 33648675 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2020.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Addiction is a chronic disorder that consists of a three-stage cycle of binge/intoxication, withdrawal/negative affect, and preoccupation/anticipation. These stages involve, respectively, neuroadaptations in brain circuits involved in incentive salience and habit formation, stress surfeit and reward deficit, and executive function. Much research on addiction focuses on the neurobiology underlying single drug use. However, alcohol use disorder (AUD) can be co-morbid with substance use disorder (SUD), called dual dependence. The limited epidemiological data on dual dependence indicates that there is a large population of individuals suffering from addiction who are dependent on more than one drug and/or alcohol, yet dual dependence remains understudied in addiction research. Here, we review neurobiological data on neurotransmitter and neuropeptide systems that are known to contribute to addiction pathology and how the involvement of these systems is consistent or divergent across drug classes. In particular, we highlight the dopamine, opioid, corticotropin-releasing factor, norepinephrine, hypocretin/orexin, glucocorticoid, neuroimmune signaling, endocannabinoid, glutamate, and GABA systems. We also discuss the limited research on these systems in dual dependence. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that the use of multiple drugs can produce neuroadaptations that are distinct from single drug use. Further investigation into the neurobiology of dual dependence is necessary to develop effective treatments for addiction to multiple drugs.
Collapse
|
13
|
Maita I, Bazer A, Blackford JU, Samuels BA. Functional anatomy of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis-hypothalamus neural circuitry: Implications for valence surveillance, addiction, feeding, and social behaviors. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2021; 179:403-418. [PMID: 34225978 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-819975-6.00026-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is a medial basal forebrain structure that modulates the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The heterogeneous subnuclei of the BNST integrate inputs from mood and reward-related areas and send direct inhibitory projections to the hypothalamus. The connections between the BNST and hypothalamus are conserved across species, promote activation of the HPA axis, and can increase avoidance of aversive environments, which is historically associated with anxiety behaviors. However, BNST-hypothalamus circuitry is also implicated in motivated behaviors, drug seeking, feeding, and sexual behavior. These complex and diverse roles, as well its sexual dimorphism, indicate that the BNST-hypothalamus circuitry is an essential component of the neural circuitry that may underlie various psychiatric diseases, ranging from anorexia to anxiety to addiction. The following review is a cross-species exploration of BNST-hypothalamus circuitry. First, we describe the BNST subnuclei, microcircuitry and complex reciprocal connections with the hypothalamus. We will then discuss the behavioral functions of BNST-hypothalamus circuitry, including valence surveillance, addiction, feeding, and social behavior. Finally, we will address sex differences in morphology and function of the BNST and hypothalamus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Maita
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, United States
| | - Allyson Bazer
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, United States
| | - Jennifer Urbano Blackford
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States; Research Health Scientist, Tennessee Valley HealthCare System, US Department of Veterans Affairs, Nashville, TN, United States
| | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Arnsten AFT. Guanfacine's mechanism of action in treating prefrontal cortical disorders: Successful translation across species. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2020; 176:107327. [PMID: 33075480 PMCID: PMC7567669 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2020.107327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The selective norepinephrine (NE) α2A-adrenoceptor (α2A-AR) agonist, guanfacine (Intuniv™), is FDA-approved for treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) based on research in animals, a translational success story. Guanfacine is also widely used off-label in additional mental disorders that involve impaired functioning of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), including stress-related disorders such as substance abuse, schizotypic cognitive deficits, and traumatic brain injury. The PFC subserves high order cognitive and executive functions including working memory, abstract reasoning, insight and judgment, and top-down control of attention, action and emotion. These abilities arise from PFC microcircuits with extensive recurrent excitation through NMDAR synapses. There is powerful modulation of these synapses, where cAMP-PKA opening of nearby potassium (K+) channels can rapidly and dynamically alter synaptic strength to coordinate arousal state with cognitive state, e.g. to take PFC "offline" during uncontrollable stress. A variety of evidence shows that guanfacine acts within the PFC via post-synaptic α2A-AR on dendritic spines to inhibit cAMP-PKA-K+ channel signaling, thus strengthening network connectivity, enhancing PFC neuronal firing, and improving PFC cognitive functions. Although guanfacine's beneficial effects are present in rodent, they are especially evident in primates, where the PFC greatly expands and differentiates. In addition to therapeutic actions in PFC, stress-related disorders may also benefit from additional α2-AR actions, such as weakening plasticity in the amygdala, reducing NE release, and anti-inflammatory actions by deactivating microglia. Altogether, these NE α2-AR actions optimize top-down control by PFC networks, which may explain guanfacine's benefits in a variety of mental disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amy F T Arnsten
- Dept. Neuroscience, Yale Medical School, 333 Cedar St., New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Lustberg D, Tillage RP, Bai Y, Pruitt M, Liles LC, Weinshenker D. Noradrenergic circuits in the forebrain control affective responses to novelty. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:3337-3355. [PMID: 32821984 PMCID: PMC7572912 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05615-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE In rodents, exposure to novel environments elicits initial anxiety-like behavior (neophobia) followed by intense exploration (neophilia) that gradually subsides as the environment becomes familiar. Thus, innate novelty-induced behaviors are useful indices of anxiety and motivation in animal models of psychiatric disease. Noradrenergic neurons are activated by novelty and implicated in exploratory and anxiety-like responses, but the role of norepinephrine (NE) in neophobia has not been clearly delineated. OBJECTIVE We sought to define the role of central NE transmission in neophilic and neophobic behaviors. METHODS We assessed dopamine β-hydroxylase knockout (Dbh -/-) mice lacking NE and their NE-competent (Dbh +/-) littermate controls in neophilic (novelty-induced locomotion; NIL) and neophobic (novelty-suppressed feeding; NSF) behavioral tests with subsequent quantification of brain-wide c-fos induction. We complimented the gene knockout approach with pharmacological interventions. RESULTS Dbh -/- mice exhibited blunted locomotor responses in the NIL task and completely lacked neophobia in the NSF test. Neophobia was rescued in Dbh -/- mice by acute pharmacological restoration of central NE with the synthetic precursor L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylserine (DOPS), and attenuated in control mice by the inhibitory α2-adrenergic autoreceptor agonist guanfacine. Following either NSF or NIL, Dbh -/- mice demonstrated reduced c-fos in the anterior cingulate cortex, medial septum, ventral hippocampus, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and basolateral amygdala. CONCLUSION These findings indicate that central NE signaling is required for the expression of both neophilic and neophobic behaviors. Further, we describe a putative noradrenergic novelty network as a potential therapeutic target for treating anxiety and substance abuse disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Lustberg
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Rachel P Tillage
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Yu Bai
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Molly Pruitt
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - L Cameron Liles
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - David Weinshenker
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Blaine SK, Wemm S, Fogelman N, Lacadie C, Seo D, Scheinost D, Sinha R. Association of Prefrontal-Striatal Functional Pathology With Alcohol Abstinence Days at Treatment Initiation and Heavy Drinking After Treatment Initiation. Am J Psychiatry 2020; 177:1048-1059. [PMID: 32854534 PMCID: PMC7606814 DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.19070703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is associated with neuroadaptations in brain stress and reward circuits. It is not known whether such neuroadaptations are affected by number of days of alcohol abstinence and whether they influence heavy drinking during the early treatment phase. The authors used a novel functional MRI (fMRI) approach to assess brain responses during sustained exposure to standardized visual stimuli of stressful, alcohol cue, and neutral control images combined with prospective assessment of drinking outcomes during early outpatient treatment, in two related studies. METHODS In study 1, 44 treatment-entering patients with AUD and 43 demographically matched healthy control subjects participated in the fMRI experiment to identify dysfunctional responses associated with chronic alcohol abuse. In study 2, 69 treatment-entering patients with AUD were assessed for whether fMRI responses at treatment initiation were influenced by alcohol abstinence and were prospectively predictive of early heavy drinking outcomes. RESULTS Relative to control subjects, patients with AUD showed significant hyperreactivity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) in response to neutral images, but significant hypoactivation in the vmPFC and ventral striatum in response to stress images and to alcohol cues relative to response to neutral images. In study 2, this specific prefrontal-ventral striatal dysfunction was associated with fewer days of alcohol abstinence and also predicted greater number heavy drinking days during the subsequent 2 weeks of treatment engagement. CONCLUSIONS Number of days of alcohol abstinence at treatment initiation significantly affected functional disruption of the prefrontal-striatal responses to stress images and to alcohol cues in patients with AUD, and the severity of this disruption in turn predicted greater heavy drinking during early treatment. Treatments that target this functional prefrontal-striatal pathology could improve early treatment outcomes in AUD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara K Blaine
- Auburn University, Department of Psychology, Auburn, AL
| | - Stephanie Wemm
- Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New Haven, CT
| | - Nia Fogelman
- Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New Haven, CT
| | - Cheryl Lacadie
- Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, New Haven, CT
| | - Dongju Seo
- Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New Haven, CT
| | - Dustin Scheinost
- Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, New Haven, CT
| | - Rajita Sinha
- Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New Haven, CT,Address correspondence to: Rajita Sinha, Ph.D., Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Yale Stress Center, 2 Church Street South, Suite 209, New Haven, CT 06519.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Bio-Behavioral Indices of Emotion Regulation: Potential Targets for Treatment in Addiction. CURRENT ADDICTION REPORTS 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s40429-020-00330-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
18
|
Stressing the potential of guanfacine as a treatment for cocaine use disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2020; 45:1407-1408. [PMID: 32152411 PMCID: PMC7468354 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-020-0649-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
19
|
α 2A-adrenergic heteroreceptors are required for stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine conditioned place preference. Neuropsychopharmacology 2020; 45:1473-1481. [PMID: 32074627 PMCID: PMC7360592 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-020-0641-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The α2a-adrenergic receptor (α2a-AR) agonist guanfacine has been investigated as a potential treatment for substance use disorders. While decreasing stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking in animal models and stress-induced craving in human studies, guanfacine has not been reported to decrease relapse rates. Although guanfacine engages α2a-AR autoreceptors, it also activates excitatory Gi-coupled heteroreceptors in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), a key brain region in driving stress-induced relapse. Thus, BNST α2a-AR heteroreceptor signaling might decrease the beneficial efficacy of guanfacine. We aimed to determine the role of α2a-AR heteroreceptors and BNST Gi-GPCR signaling in stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine conditioned place preference (CPP) and the effects of low dose guanfacine on BNST activity and stress-induced reinstatement. We used a genetic deletion strategy and the cocaine CPP procedure to first define the contributions of α2a-AR heteroreceptors to stress-induced reinstatement. Next, we mimicked BNST Gi-coupled α2a-AR heteroreceptor signaling using a Gi-coupled designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drug (Gi-DREADD) approach. Finally, we evaluated the effects of low-dose guanfacine on BNST cFOS immunoreactivity and stress-induced reinstatement. We show that α2a-AR heteroreceptor deletion disrupts stress-induced reinstatement and that BNST Gi-DREADD activation is sufficient to induce reinstatement. Importantly, we found that low-dose guanfacine does not increase BNST activity, but prevents stress-induced reinstatement. Our findings demonstrate a role for α2a-AR heteroreceptors and BNST Gi-GPCR signaling in stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine CPP and provide insight into the impact of dose on the efficacy of guanfacine as a treatment for stress-induced relapse of cocaine use.
Collapse
|
20
|
Czoty PW, Nader MA. Effects of the α-2 Adrenergic Receptor Agonists Lofexidine and Guanfacine on Food-Cocaine Choice in Socially Housed Cynomolgus Monkeys. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2020; 375:193-201. [PMID: 32636208 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.120.266007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Although norepinephrine (NE) does not appear to play a prominent role in mediating the abuse-related effects of cocaine, studies have indicated that NE α-2 receptor agonists can attenuate reinstatement of extinguished cocaine self-administration in rats and monkeys and can decrease cocaine craving in humans. In the present studies, we examined the effects of two α-2 receptor agonists, lofexidine and guanfacine, on choice between food and cocaine (0.0-0.1 mg/kg per injection) in cynomolgus monkeys. Male and female subjects were housed in stable same-sex social groups of four; social rank did not influence the effects of lofexidine and guanfacine. When administered acutely, lofexidine (0.03-3.0 mg/kg, i.v.) significantly decreased cocaine choice in females (n = 7) but not males (n = 8). However, in males, the same lofexidine doses produced dose-dependent decreases in core body temperature (n = 7), and acute guanfacine (0.003-1.0 mg/kg, i.v.) significantly decreased cocaine choice (n = 11). When lofexidine was administered for five consecutive days to a subset of the monkeys in whom lofexidine acutely decreased cocaine choice, tolerance to this effect developed to varying degrees of completeness in three of three males and two of four females. Taken together, these data suggest that α-2 receptor agonists can produce small decreases in the reinforcing strength of cocaine relative to food and that, even when efficacy is observed after acute administration, tolerance to the decreases in cocaine choice are apparent and more likely in males compared with females. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Cocaine use disorder remains a significant public health problem with no US Food and Drug Administration-approved treatments. Although cocaine elevates dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine (NE), the latter target has received less research. The present study noted modest effects of NE agonists on the relative reinforcing strength of cocaine with greater efficacy in female compared with male monkeys.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul W Czoty
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Michael A Nader
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Fronk GE, Sant'Ana SJ, Kaye JT, Curtin JJ. Stress Allostasis in Substance Use Disorders: Promise, Progress, and Emerging Priorities in Clinical Research. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2020; 16:401-430. [PMID: 32040338 PMCID: PMC7259491 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-102419-125016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Clinicians and researchers alike have long believed that stressors play a pivotal etiologic role in risk, maintenance, and/or relapse of alcohol and other substance use disorders (SUDs). Numerous seminal and contemporary theories on SUD etiology posit that stressors may motivate drug use and that individuals who use drugs chronically may display altered responses to stressors. We use foundational basic stress biology research as a lens through which to evaluate critically the available evidence to support these key stress-SUD theses in humans. Additionally, we examine the field's success to date in targeting stressors and stress allostasis in treatments for SUDs. We conclude with our recommendations for how best to advance our understanding of the relationship between stressors and drug use, and we discuss clinical implications for treatment development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gaylen E Fronk
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA; , ,
| | - Sarah J Sant'Ana
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA; , ,
| | - Jesse T Kaye
- William S. Middleton Memorial Veterans Hospital, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, USA;
- Center for Tobacco Research and Intervention, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin 53711, USA
| | - John J Curtin
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA; , ,
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Wang W, Zhornitsky S, Le TM, Zhang S, Li CSR. Heart Rate Variability, Cue-Evoked Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortical Response, and Problem Alcohol Use in Adult Drinkers. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY: COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2020; 5:619-628. [PMID: 32061544 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2019.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many studies employed cue exposure paradigms to investigate the neural processes underlying cue-elicited alcohol craving. Cue exposure elicits robust autonomic reactivity. However, whether or how cue-elicited autonomic response relates to the severity of alcohol misuse and the neural bases underlying the potential relationship remain unclear. METHODS We examined cue-related brain activations in association with heart rate variability, as indexed by the root mean square of the successive differences (RMSSD), during alcohol versus neutral cue blocks in 50 adult alcohol drinkers (24 men). Imaging and heart rate variability data were collected and processed with published routines. Mediation analyses were conducted to examine the interrelationship between regional activities, cue-elicited changes in RMSSD, and the severity of problem alcohol use, as assessed with the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). RESULTS The results showed higher RMSSD during alcohol than during neutral cue exposures, with alcohol (vs. neutral) cue-evoked RMSSD positively correlated with AUDIT score. Further, alcohol (vs. neutral) cue-elicited activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex was negatively correlated both with increases in RMSSD and with the AUDIT score. Mediation analyses suggested that the RMSSD mediated the relationship between ventromedial prefrontal cortex cue activity and the AUDIT score. CONCLUSIONS These findings substantiate the neural correlates of the presumably parasympathetic response during alcohol cue exposure and the interrelationship among ventromedial prefrontal cortex activity, autonomic response, and problem alcohol use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wuyi Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Simon Zhornitsky
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Thang M Le
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Sheng Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Chiang-Shan R Li
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut; Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut; Department of Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Holst M, Mathai DS, Patel MM, Rodgman C, Keller J, Hussain MZ, De La Garza R, Kosten TR, Verrico CD. Use of Guanfacine for Cannabis Use Disorder and Related Symptomology. Am J Addict 2019; 28:455-464. [PMID: 31483544 DOI: 10.1111/ajad.12959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 07/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES No medication has Food and Drug Administration approval for cannabis use disorder (CUD), and most medication development focuses on the withdrawal syndrome. We evaluated the effects of short-term treatment using the α-2A-adrenergic receptor agonist, guanfacine, on withdrawal symptoms in volunteers with CUD and a history of early onset of cannabis use. METHODS Non-treatment-seeking healthy volunteers (n = 7) who met the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition criteria for CUD participated in a two-phase, within-subjects study. Volunteers received placebo or guanfacine (3 mg/day) for the first 8-day inpatient study and the alternative medication for the second 8-day inpatient study. On day 1 of both treatment periods, participants received 30 mg of synthetic Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol for standardization of abstinence onset. On days 2 to 7, participants received study medication. Cannabis withdrawal symptoms, sleep, craving, and physiology were assessed on all inpatient days. RESULTS Compared with placebo, guanfacine did not show significant effects on withdrawal, craving, or sleep, although there were trends for guanfacine to increase positive mood symptoms and decrease craving-associated compulsivity. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Compared with former studies, we could not prove significant improvement in sleep or decrease of negative symptoms, but we found trends for increased positive mood symptoms. Our data did not show significant effects of guanfacine on withdrawal symptoms or craving. Due to early and longer cannabis use, our subjects indicate a great severity of illness increasing the likelihood of treatment resistance. SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE On the basis of trends demonstrated here and other lines of evidence, further investigation is warranted regarding the utility of guanfacine as a potential treatment for CUD. (Am J Addict 2019;00:1-10).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Holst
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - David S Mathai
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Marguerite M Patel
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Christopher Rodgman
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Jake Keller
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Mariyah Z Hussain
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Richard De La Garza
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.,Department of Pharmacology, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Thomas R Kosten
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.,Department of Pharmacology, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Christopher D Verrico
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.,Department of Pharmacology, Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Wang W, Zhornitsky S, Le TM, Dhingra I, Zhang S, Krystal JH, Li CSR. Cue-elicited craving, thalamic activity, and physiological arousal in adult non-dependent drinkers. J Psychiatr Res 2019; 116:74-82. [PMID: 31202048 PMCID: PMC6606341 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 06/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Changes in physiological arousal frequently accompany cognitive and affective challenges. Many studies employed cue exposure paradigms to investigate the neural processes underlying cue-elicited drug and alcohol craving. However, whether cue-elicited craving relates to changes in physiological arousal and the neural bases underlying the potential relationship remain unclear. Here we examined cerebral cue-related activations in relation to differences in skin conductance responses (SCR) recorded during alcohol vs. neutral cue blocks in 61 non-dependent alcohol drinkers (30 men). Imaging and skin conductance data were collected and processed with published routines. Mediation analyses were conducted to examine the inter-relationship between regional activities, cue-elicited craving, and SCR. The results showed higher SCR during alcohol than during neutral cue exposure. Despite no differences in drinking characteristics, men as compared to women demonstrated higher craving rating, and men but not women demonstrated a positive correlation between alcohol (vs. neutral) cue-evoked craving and SCR. Further, across subjects, thalamic cue activity was positively correlated with differences in SCR between alcohol and neutral cue blocks in men but not in women. Mediation analyses suggested that thalamic activity mediated the correlation between craving and SCR across men and women, and in men but not women alone. These findings substantiate physiological and neural correlates of alcohol cue response and suggest important sex differences in the physiological and neural processes of cue evoked craving. Centered on the intralaminar and mediodorsal subregions, the thalamic correlate may represent a neural target for behavioral or pharmacological therapy to decrease cue-elicited arousal and craving.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wuyi Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Simon Zhornitsky
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Thang M. Le
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Isha Dhingra
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Sheng Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - John H. Krystal
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520,Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520,Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Chiang-shan R. Li
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520,Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520,Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Hermes G, Hyman SM, Fogelman N, Kosten TR, Sinha R. Lofexidine in Combination With Oral Naltrexone for Opioid Use Disorder Relapse Prevention: A Pilot Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. Am J Addict 2019; 28:480-488. [PMID: 31448846 DOI: 10.1111/ajad.12942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 07/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Lofexidine (LFX), an α2A adrenergic receptor agonist, known to alleviate opioid withdrawal symptoms, was assessed in combination with oral naltrexone (NTX) for effects on opioid use outcomes and NTX treatment compliance. METHODS Detoxified individuals (ages 18-55, 80% male) with opioid use disorder Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition were randomized to 2.4 mg/day of LFX (n = 26) or Placebo (PBO, n = 31) in a double-blind manner for 12 weeks of treatment. NTX compliance, opioid-free urine samples, opioid craving as well as vital signs, subjective opioid withdrawal symptoms were assessed. RESULTS Intent to treat analysis revealed significantly better control over opioid craving in the LFX/NTX vs PBO/NTX group (P < .03), but no differences between groups in NTX compliance, opioid use, and overall opioid craving. However, subject withdrawal due to medication intolerance was significantly higher in the LFX/NTX (5/26) vs PBO/NTX (0/31) (P < .01). Two additional patients were withdrawn due to acute hepatitis infection. Post hoc secondary analyses with the nonwithdrawn sample indicated significantly higher rates of treatment completion (P < .05) and NTX compliance (P < .01), lower percent opioid urine samples (P < .05), and lower overall opioid craving (P < .05) in the LFX/NTX vs the PBO/NTX group. CONCLUSION AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE Although preliminary, these findings suggest that LFX at doses up to 2.4 mg/daily was safe and improved control over opioid cravings. Among those who tolerated the medication, LFX/NTX significantly improved the opioid craving, delayed return to opioid use, and improved treatment compliance and completion rates. These findings support further assessment of LFX dose titration schedule along with the adjunctive use of LFX with NTX treatment to enhance opioid relapse prevention. (Am J Addict 2019;00:1-9).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gretchen Hermes
- The Yale Stress Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Scott M Hyman
- Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, Albizu University, Doral, Florida
| | - Nia Fogelman
- The Yale Stress Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | | | - Rajita Sinha
- The Yale Stress Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Pharmacological NOS-1 Inhibition Within the Hippocampus Prevented Expression of Cocaine Sensitization: Correlation with Reduced Synaptic Transmission. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 57:450-460. [PMID: 31378002 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-01725-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Behavioral sensitization to psychostimulants hyperlocomotor effect is a useful model of addiction and craving. Particularly, cocaine sensitization in rats enhanced synaptic plasticity within the hippocampus, an important brain region for the associative learning processes underlying drug addiction. Nitric oxide (NO) is a neurotransmitter involved in both, hippocampal synaptic plasticity and cocaine sensitization. It has been previously demonstrated a key role of NOS-1/NO/sGC/cGMP signaling pathway in the development of cocaine sensitization and in the associated enhancement of hippocampal synaptic plasticity. The aim of the present investigation was to determine whether NOS-1 inhibition after development of cocaine sensitization was able to reverse it, and to characterize the involvement of the hippocampus in this phenomenon. Male Wistar rats were administered only with cocaine (15 mg/kg/day i.p.) for 5 days. Then, animals received 7-nitroindazole (NOS-1 inhibitor) either systemically for the next 5 days or a single intra-hippocampal administration. Development of sensitization and its expression after withdrawal were tested, as well as threshold for long-term potentiation in hippocampus, NOS-1, and CREB protein levels and gene expression. The results showed that NOS-1 protein levels and gene expression were increased only in sensitized animals as well as CREB gene expression. NOS-1 inhibition after sensitization reversed behavioral expression and the highest level of hippocampal synaptic plasticity. In conclusion, NO signaling within the hippocampus is critical for the development and expression of cocaine sensitization. Therefore, NOS-1 inhibition or NO signaling pathways interferences during short-term withdrawal after repeated cocaine administration may represent plausible pharmacological targets to prevent or reduce susceptibility to relapse.
Collapse
|
27
|
Dakwar E, Mahony A, Choi CJ, Pavlicova M, Brooks D, Mariani JP, Levin FR. Guanfacine extended-release for cannabis use disorder: a pilot feasibility trial. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2019; 46:44-48. [PMID: 31339797 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2019.1620259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Background: Currently, there are no established pharmacotherapies for cannabis use disorders (CUDs). As a long-acting alpha-2-adrenergic receptor agonist, guanfacine extended-release (G-XR) could be useful in the treatment of CUDs by mitigating withdrawal and improving behavioral control.Objectives: To evaluate the feasibility and tolerability of G-XR as a treatment for CUDs.Methods: In an eight-week open-label outpatient pilot trial, we evaluated the safety and tolerability of G-XR in 22 cannabis dependent individuals. Using 2 different titration schedules, G-XR was gradually titrated to a dose of 4 mg or the highest dose tolerated. All participants received standard medication management.Results: Retention at week eight was 41%. Average daily amount of cannabis use (in grams: F1,86 = 8.74, p = .004; in dollars: F1,86 = 16.67, p < .0001) and cannabis using days (F1,86 = 7.67, p = .007) significantly reduced over the course of study participation. There were no significant differences between the titration schedules on emergence of side effects (Fisher exact test, p = .378) or retention (Log-Rank Test X21 = 0.021, p = .886). A total of 3 participants achieved 3 weeks or greater of total abstinence.Conclusions: G-XR is a feasible treatment for CUDs, and should be evaluated further in an efficacy trial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elias Dakwar
- Division on Substance use Disorders, New York State Psychiatric Institute (NYSPI), Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Amy Mahony
- Division on Substance use Disorders, New York State Psychiatric Institute (NYSPI), Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - C Jean Choi
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biostatistics, New York, USA
| | - Martina Pavlicova
- Mailman School of Public Health, Biostatistics, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Daniel Brooks
- Division on Substance use Disorders, New York State Psychiatric Institute (NYSPI), Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - John P Mariani
- Division on Substance use Disorders, New York State Psychiatric Institute (NYSPI), Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Frances R Levin
- Division on Substance use Disorders, New York State Psychiatric Institute (NYSPI), Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Schweinhart A, Cargill V, Brady K, Hall K, Spencer E, Clayton J. Addressing Health Challenges of Women Across the Life Course: Summary of the Women's Health 2018 Preconference Symposium. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2019; 28:741-746. [PMID: 31219766 DOI: 10.1089/jwh.2019.29027.pcss] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the United States is often ahead in both research and health care fields, it lags behind peer countries in many population health indicators. To address these complex health problems that often reflect the intersection of many socioeconomic and health issues, it is essential that scientists work collaboratively across distinct disciplines. Women's health is but one area which can benefit from such an approach given the multifaceted and complex issues underlying the different aspects of women's health research. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Research on Women's Health (ORWH) and the Office of Women's Health of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) cosponsored a preconference symposium at the Women's Health 2018 Conference, held in May in Arlington, VA, to highlight interdisciplinary approaches to research, how researchers can work collaboratively, and how to apply multifaceted approaches to complex real-world problems. Three speakers presented information on a range of subjects related to the health of women across the life course, including the distinction between multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approaches; the science behind Team Science and how its findings apply to working collaboratively; and gender inequalities in the opioid epidemic. This article summarizes the major points of the presentations and the subsequent discussions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- April Schweinhart
- 1 PIRE Louisville Center, Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation, Louisville, Kentucky
| | - Victoria Cargill
- 2 Office of Research on Women's Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Kathleen Brady
- 3 Office of Research, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Kara Hall
- 4 National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Elizabeth Spencer
- 2 Office of Research on Women's Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Janine Clayton
- 2 Office of Research on Women's Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Lechner WV, Sidhu NK, Kittaneh AA, Anand A. Interventions with potential to target executive function deficits in addiction: current state of the literature. Curr Opin Psychol 2019; 30:24-28. [PMID: 30797130 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The inability to stop or reduce substance use despite motivation to do so is thought to result, in part, from self-control failure and can be understood within the framework of dual process models of addiction. These models view addictive behavior as the relative balance between automatic impulses and executive decision processes. This review focuses on treatments that aim to improve executive decision processes which often become dysregulated and ineffective in individuals with substance use disorders. It is posited that improving these executive function deficits should restore control over automatic impulses and drug seeking behavior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William V Lechner
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, 144 Kent Hall, P.O. Box 5190, Kent, OH 44242-0001, USA
| | - Natasha K Sidhu
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, 144 Kent Hall, P.O. Box 5190, Kent, OH 44242-0001, USA
| | - Ahmad A Kittaneh
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Kent State University, 144 Kent Hall, P.O. Box 5190, Kent, OH 44242-0001, USA
| | - Amit Anand
- Center for Behavioral Health, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Schmidt HD, Rupprecht LE, Addy NA. Neurobiological and Neurophysiological Mechanisms Underlying Nicotine Seeking and Smoking Relapse. MOLECULAR NEUROPSYCHIATRY 2019; 4:169-189. [PMID: 30815453 PMCID: PMC6388439 DOI: 10.1159/000494799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Tobacco-related morbidity and mortality continue to be a significant public health concern. Unfortunately, current FDA-approved smoking cessation pharmacotherapies have limited efficacy and are associated with high rates of relapse. Therefore, a better understanding of the neurobiological and neurophysiological mechanisms that promote smoking relapse is needed to develop novel smoking cessation medications. Here, we review preclinical studies focused on identifying the neurotransmitter and neuromodulator systems that mediate nicotine relapse, often modeled in laboratory animals using the reinstatement paradigm, as well as the plasticity-dependent neurophysiological mechanisms that facilitate nicotine reinstatement. Particular emphasis is placed on how these neuroadaptations relate to smoking relapse in humans. We also highlight a number of important gaps in our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying nicotine reinstatement and critical future directions, which may lead toward the development of novel, target pharmacotherapies for smoking cessation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heath D. Schmidt
- Department of Biobehavioral Health Sciences, School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Laura E. Rupprecht
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Nii A. Addy
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Freund N, Jordan CJ, Lukkes JL, Norman KJ, Andersen SL. Juvenile exposure to methylphenidate and guanfacine in rats: effects on early delay discounting and later cocaine-taking behavior. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:685-698. [PMID: 30411140 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5096-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Both methylphenidate (MPH), a catecholamine reuptake blocker, and guanfacine, an alpha2A agonist, are used to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Childhood impulsivity, including delay discounting, is associated with increased substance use during adolescence. These effects can be mitigated by juvenile exposure to MPH, but less is known about the long-term effects of developmental exposure to guanfacine in males and females. OBJECTIVE This study aims to determine sex differences and dose-dependent effects of juvenile exposure to MPH or guanfacine on delay-discounting and later cocaine self-administration. METHODS The dose-dependent effects of vehicle, MPH (0.5, 1, and 2 mg/kg p.o.) or guanfacine (0.003, 0.03, and 0.3 mg/kg, i.p.) on discounting were determined in male and female Sprague-Dawley rats beginning at postnatal day (P)20. At P90, the amount, motivation, and sensitivity to cocaine following early drug exposure were determined with self-administration. RESULTS Guanfacine, but not MPH, significantly reduced weight by 22.9 ± 4.6% in females. MPH dose dependently decreased delay discounting in both juvenile males and females, while guanfacine was only effective in males. Discounting was associated with cocaine self-administration in vehicle males (R2 = -0.4, P < 0.05) and self-administration was reduced by guanfacine treatment (0.3 mg/kg). Guanfacine significantly decreased cocaine sensitivity in both sexes. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that MPH is effective in reducing delay discounting in both sexes. Due to both weight loss and ineffectiveness on discounting in females, guanfacine should be used only in males to reduce delay discounting and later cocaine use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nadja Freund
- Laboratory of Developmental Neuropharmacology, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Mailstop 333, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA.,Division of Experimental and Molecular Psychiatry, LWL University Hospital Bochum, Bochum, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Preventive Medicine, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Chloe J Jordan
- Laboratory of Developmental Neuropharmacology, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Mailstop 333, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA.,Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jodi L Lukkes
- Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Kevin J Norman
- Laboratory of Developmental Neuropharmacology, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, USA
| | - Susan L Andersen
- Laboratory of Developmental Neuropharmacology, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, USA. .,Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Mailstop 333, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Ch'ng S, Fu J, Brown RM, McDougall SJ, Lawrence AJ. The intersection of stress and reward: BNST modulation of aversive and appetitive states. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2018; 87:108-125. [PMID: 29330137 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is widely acknowledged as a brain structure that regulates stress and anxiety states, as well as aversive and appetitive behaviours. The diverse roles of the BNST are afforded by its highly modular organisation, neurochemical heterogeneity, and complex intrinsic and extrinsic circuitry. There has been growing interest in the BNST in relation to psychopathologies such as anxiety and addiction. Although research on the human BNST is still in its infancy, there have been extensive preclinical studies examining the molecular signature and hodology of the BNST and their involvement in stress and reward seeking behaviour. This review examines the neurochemical phenotype and connectivity of the BNST, as well as electrophysiological correlates of plasticity in the BNST mediated by stress and/or drugs of abuse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Ch'ng
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Jingjing Fu
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Robyn M Brown
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Stuart J McDougall
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Andrew J Lawrence
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Greenwald MK. Anti-stress neuropharmacological mechanisms and targets for addiction treatment: A translational framework. Neurobiol Stress 2018; 9:84-104. [PMID: 30238023 PMCID: PMC6138948 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2018.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Revised: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress-related substance use is a major challenge for treating substance use disorders. This selective review focuses on emerging pharmacotherapies with potential for reducing stress-potentiated seeking and consumption of nicotine, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, and opioids (i.e., key phenotypes for the most commonly abused substances). I evaluate neuropharmacological mechanisms in experimental models of drug-maintenance and relapse, which translate more readily to individuals presenting for treatment (who have initiated and progressed). An affective/motivational systems model (three dimensions: valence, arousal, control) is mapped onto a systems biology of addiction approach for addressing this problem. Based on quality of evidence to date, promising first-tier neurochemical receptor targets include: noradrenergic (α1 and β antagonist, α2 agonist), kappa-opioid antagonist, nociceptin antagonist, orexin-1 antagonist, and endocannabinoid modulation (e.g., cannabidiol, FAAH inhibition); second-tier candidates may include corticotropin releasing factor-1 antagonists, serotonergic agents (e.g., 5-HT reuptake inhibitors, 5-HT3 antagonists), glutamatergic agents (e.g., mGluR2/3 agonist/positive allosteric modulator, mGluR5 antagonist/negative allosteric modulator), GABA-promoters (e.g., pregabalin, tiagabine), vasopressin 1b antagonist, NK-1 antagonist, and PPAR-γ agonist (e.g., pioglitazone). To address affective/motivational mechanisms of stress-related substance use, it may be advisable to combine agents with actions at complementary targets for greater efficacy but systematic studies are lacking except for interactions with the noradrenergic system. I note clinically-relevant factors that could mediate/moderate the efficacy of anti-stress therapeutics and identify research gaps that should be pursued. Finally, progress in developing anti-stress medications will depend on use of reliable CNS biomarkers to validate exposure-response relationships.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark K. Greenwald
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Department of Pharmacy Practice, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Logrip ML, Milivojevic V, Bertholomey ML, Torregrossa MM. Sexual dimorphism in the neural impact of stress and alcohol. Alcohol 2018; 72:49-59. [PMID: 30227988 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2018.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Alcohol use disorder is a widespread mental illness characterized by periods of abstinence followed by recidivism, and stress is the primary trigger of relapse. Despite the higher prevalence of alcohol use disorder in males, the relationship between stress and behavioral features of relapse, such as craving, is stronger in females. Given the greater susceptibility of females to stress-related psychiatric disorders, understanding sexual dimorphism in the relationship between stress and alcohol use is essential to identifying better treatments for both male and female alcoholics. This review addresses sex differences in the impact of stressors on alcohol drinking and seeking in rodents and humans. As these behavioral differences in alcohol use and relapse originate from sexual dimorphism in neuronal function, the impact of stressors and alcohol, and their interaction, on molecular adaptations and neural activity in males and females will also be discussed. Together, the data reviewed herein, arising from a symposium titled "Sex matters in stress-alcohol interactions" presented at the Fourth Volterra Conference on Stress and Alcohol, will highlight the importance of identifying sex differences to improve treatments for comorbid stress and alcohol use disorder in both sexes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marian L Logrip
- Department of Psychology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN 46202, United States.
| | - Verica Milivojevic
- The Yale Stress Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, United States
| | - Megan L Bertholomey
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, United States
| | - Mary M Torregrossa
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, United States
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Rice T, Grasso J, Dembar A, Caplan O, Cohen A, Coffey B. Guanfacine as a Facilitator of Recovery from Conversion Disorder in a Young Girl. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2018; 28:571-575. [PMID: 30307762 DOI: 10.1089/cap.2018.29154.bjc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Rice
- 1 Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York, New York
| | - Jesse Grasso
- 1 Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York, New York
| | | | - Oona Caplan
- 1 Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York, New York
| | - Abi Cohen
- 1 Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York, New York
| | - Barbara Coffey
- 2 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami, Florida
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Peptide (PACAP) Signaling and the Dark Side of Addiction. J Mol Neurosci 2018; 68:453-464. [PMID: 30074172 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-018-1147-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
While addiction to drugs of abuse represents a significant health problem worldwide, the behavioral and neural mechanisms that underlie addiction and relapse are largely unclear. The concept of the dark side of addiction, developed and explored by George Koob and colleagues, describes a systematic decrease in reward-related processing following drug self-administration and subsequent recruitment of anti-reward (i.e., stress) systems. Indeed, the activation of central nervous system (CNS) stress-response systems by drugs of abuse is contributory not only to mood and anxiety-related disorders but critical to both the maintenance of addiction and relapse following abstinence. In both human and animal studies, compounds that activate the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) have roles in stress-related behaviors and addiction processes. The activation of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) systems in the BNST mediates many consequences of chronic stressor exposure that may engage in part downstream corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) signaling. Similar to footshock stress, the BNST administration of PACAP or the PAC1 receptor-specific agonist maxadilan can facilitate relapse following extinction of cocaine-seeking behavior. Further, in the same paradigm, the footshock-induced relapse could be attenuated following BNST pretreatment with PAC1 receptor antagonist PACAP6-38, implicating PACAP systems as critical components underlying stress-induced reinstatement. In congruence with previous work, the PAC1 receptor internalization and endosomal MEK/ERK signaling appear contributory mechanisms to the addiction processes. The studies offer new insights and approaches to addiction and relapse therapeutics.
Collapse
|
37
|
Clonidine Increases the Likelihood That Abstinence Can Withstand Unstructured Time in Buprenorphine-maintained Outpatients. J Addict Med 2018; 11:454-460. [PMID: 28759482 DOI: 10.1097/adm.0000000000000345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In a clinical trial examining daily clonidine as an adjunct to buprenorphine treatment for opioid dependence, we found that clonidine increased opioid abstinence and decoupled stress from craving. From a personalized-medicine perspective, the next step is to identify people for whom clonidine would be beneficial. To that end, using data from the same clinical trial, we examined the associations of daily-life activities with treatment success. METHODS Outpatients (N = 118) received clonidine (0.3 mg/d) or placebo during 18 weeks of buprenorphine treatment. Participants carried a smartphone that randomly prompted them 4 times per day to report their moods and activities. Using generalized linear mixed models, we assessed the likelihoods of different types of daily activity as a function of clonidine versus placebo, days of longest continuous opioid abstinence, and their interaction. RESULTS Participants in the buprenorphine-only (buprenorphine plus placebo) control group who engaged in more responsibilities (work and child/elder care) had longer streaks of abstinence, whereas those who engaged in more unstructured-time activities had shorter streaks of abstinence. Conversely, for participants in the buprenorphine-plus-clonidine group, longer streaks of abstinence were associated with higher frequencies of activities associated with "unstructured" time. CONCLUSIONS The study replicates findings that engaging in responsibilities is related to positive treatment outcomes in standard opioid agonist therapy. The pattern of results also suggests that clonidine helped participants engage in unstructured-time activities with less risk of craving or use than they might otherwise have had.
Collapse
|
38
|
Kowalczyk WJ, Moran LM, Bertz JW, Phillips KA, Ghitza UE, Vahabzadeh M, Lin JL, Epstein DH, Preston KL. Using ecological momentary assessment to examine the relationship between craving and affect with opioid use in a clinical trial of clonidine as an adjunct medication to buprenorphine treatment. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2018; 44:502-511. [PMID: 29634425 PMCID: PMC6146282 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2018.1454933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In a recent clinical trial (NCT00295308), we demonstrated that clonidine decreased the association between opioid craving and moderate levels of stress and affect in patients receiving buprenorphine-based opioid agonist therapy. OBJECTIVES To examine the relationship between illicit opioid use and craving and affect during the evaluation of clonidine as an adjunct medication in buprenorphine treatment for opioid use disorder. Secondarily, to examine whether those relationships are driven by within- or between-participant factors. METHODS This was a secondary data analysis from our original trial. Participants (N = 108, female: n = 23, male n = 85) receiving buprenorphine were randomized to receive adjunct clonidine or placebo. Participants used portable electronic devices to rate stress, mood, and craving via ecological momentary assessment (EMA) four times randomly each day. To associate the EMA data with illicit opioid use, each EMA report was linked to participants' next urine drug screen (thrice weekly). We used generalized linear mixed models to examine the interaction between treatment group and illicit opioid use, as well as to decompose the analysis into within- and between-participant effects. RESULTS Craving for opioids and cocaine was increased when participants were using illicit opioids; this effect was greater in the clonidine group. For affect, mood was poorer during periods preceding opioid-positive urines than opioid-negative urines for clonidine-treated participants, whereas there was no difference for placebo participants. CONCLUSION This secondary analysis provides evidence that for participants maintained on opioid agonist therapy, clonidine minimized the behavioral impact of moderate levels of negative affect and craving.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William J Kowalczyk
- a National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program , Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch , Baltimore , MD, USA
- b Department of Psychology , Hartwick College , Oneonta , NY , USA
| | - Landhing M Moran
- a National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program , Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch , Baltimore , MD, USA
| | - Jeremiah W Bertz
- a National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program , Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch , Baltimore , MD, USA
| | - Karran A Phillips
- a National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program , Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch , Baltimore , MD, USA
| | - Udi E Ghitza
- c National Institute on Drug Abuse, Center for Clinical Trials Network , Bethesda , MD , USA
| | - Massoud Vahabzadeh
- d National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program , Biomedical Informatics Section , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - Jia-Ling Lin
- d National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program , Biomedical Informatics Section , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - David H Epstein
- a National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program , Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch , Baltimore , MD, USA
| | - Kenzie L Preston
- a National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program , Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch , Baltimore , MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Peptide in the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis Mediates Stress-Induced Reinstatement of Cocaine Seeking in Rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2018; 43:978-986. [PMID: 28656976 PMCID: PMC5854788 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2017.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2017] [Revised: 05/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Stressors often contribute to difficulties in maintaining behavior change following a period of abstinence, and may play a significant role in drug relapse. The activation of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) systems in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) mediates many consequences of chronic stressor exposure. Here we ask whether PACAP is also involved in producing reinstatement in a model of stress-induced relapse to drug taking. Rats self-administered cocaine for 1 h daily over 10 days that was followed by 20 days of extinction training in which lever pressing no longer produced cocaine. In experiment 1, quantitative PCR (qPCR) was performed at several stages to determine transcript levels of PACAP and corresponding receptors. Reinstatement of cocaine seeking was then tested after footshock exposure in different groups of rats that were pretreated with vehicle solution, a PAC1 receptor antagonist (experiment 2), or a PACAP agonist (experiment 3) without footshock. In experiment 1, cocaine self-administration increased BNST PACAP transcript levels similar to what we have previously reported with chronic stress. In experiment 2, intra-BNST infusions of the PAC1/VPAC2 antagonist, PACAP 6-38, prevented footshock-induced reinstatement of extinguished cocaine seeking. In experiment 3, intra-BNST PACAP infusion reinstated previously extinguished cocaine-seeking behavior in the absence of footshock. Cocaine self-administration elevated BNST PACAP, and BNST PACAP receptor activation was necessary and sufficient for stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking. These data suggest that BNST PACAP systems may be viable targets for relapse prevention.
Collapse
|
40
|
Sandiego CM, Matuskey D, Lavery M, McGovern E, Huang Y, Nabulsi N, Ropchan J, Picciotto MR, Morris ED, McKee SA, Cosgrove KP. The Effect of Treatment with Guanfacine, an Alpha2 Adrenergic Agonist, on Dopaminergic Tone in Tobacco Smokers: An [ 11C]FLB457 PET Study. Neuropsychopharmacology 2018; 43:1052-1058. [PMID: 28944773 PMCID: PMC5854798 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2017.223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Revised: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Guanfacine, a noradrenergic alpha2a agonist, reduced tobacco smoking in a 4-week trial and in animal models has been shown to reduce cortical dopamine release, which is critically involved in the reinforcing effect of tobacco smoking. We measured amphetamine-induced extrastriatal dopamine release before and after treatment with guanfacine with [11C]FLB457, a dopamine D2/D3 receptor radiotracer, and positron emission tomography (PET). Sixteen tobacco smokers had one set of [11C]FLB457 PET scans on the same day, one before and one at 2.5-3 h after amphetamine (0.4-0.5 mg/kg, PO). A subset (n=12) then underwent guanfacine treatment (3 mg/day for 3 weeks) and the set of scans were repeated. [11C]FLB457-binding potential (BPND) was measured pre- and post amphetamine in extrastriatal brain regions. The fractional change in BPND after vs before amphetamine (Δ BPND) is an indirect measure of DA release and was compared between the untreated and guanfacine-treated conditions. Guanfacine treatment attenuated amphetamine-induced DA release; however, the change was due to a global 8% decrease in baseline BPND from the untreated to the guanfacine-treated condition. Chronic guanfacine treatment reduced [11C]FLB457 BPND in tobacco smokers, suggesting an increase in dopaminergic tone. Guanfacine-induced normalization of dopamine signaling may be an important mesocortical mechanism contributing to its ability to aid in tobacco smoking cessation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christine M Sandiego
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- PET Center, Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - David Matuskey
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- PET Center, Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Meaghan Lavery
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Erin McGovern
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Yiyun Huang
- PET Center, Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Nabeel Nabulsi
- PET Center, Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jim Ropchan
- PET Center, Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - Evan D Morris
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- PET Center, Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Sherry A McKee
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Kelly P Cosgrove
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- PET Center, Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Nishitomi K, Yano K, Kobayashi M, Jino K, Kano T, Horiguchi N, Shinohara S, Hasegawa M. Systemic administration of guanfacine improves food-motivated impulsive choice behavior primarily via direct stimulation of postsynaptic α 2A-adrenergic receptors in rats. Behav Brain Res 2018; 345:21-29. [PMID: 29476896 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Impulsive choice behavior, which can be assessed using the delay discounting task, is a characteristic of various psychiatric disorders, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Guanfacine is a selective α2A-adrenergic receptor agonist that is clinically effective in treating ADHD. However, there is no clear evidence that systemic guanfacine administration reduces impulsive choice behavior in the delay discounting task in rats. In the present study, we examined the effect of systemic guanfacine administration on food-motivated impulsive choice behavior in rats and the neuronal mechanism underlying this effect. Repeated administration of either guanfacine, methylphenidate, or atomoxetine significantly enhanced impulse control, increasing the number of times the rats chose a large but delayed reward in a dose-dependent manner. The effect of guanfacine was significantly blocked by pretreatment with an α2A-adrenergic receptor antagonist. Furthermore, the effect of guanfacine remained unaffected in rats pretreated with a selective noradrenergic neurotoxin, consistent with a post-synaptic action. In contrast, the effect of atomoxetine on impulsive choice behavior was attenuated by pretreatment with the noradrenergic neurotoxin. These results provide the first evidence that systemically administered guanfacine reduces impulsive choice behavior in rats and that direct stimulation of postsynaptic, rather than presynaptic, α2A-adrenergic receptors is involved in this effect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kouhei Nishitomi
- Pain & Neuroscience, Drug Discovery & Disease Research Laboratory, Shionogi Co. Ltd., Toyonaka, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Koji Yano
- Pain & Neuroscience, Drug Discovery & Disease Research Laboratory, Shionogi Co. Ltd., Toyonaka, Osaka, Japan
| | - Mika Kobayashi
- Drug Efficacy Evaluation Services 3, Drug Efficacy Evaluation and Research Technology Service, Shionogi Techno Advance Research Co. Ltd., Toyonaka, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kohei Jino
- Pain & Neuroscience, Drug Discovery & Disease Research Laboratory, Shionogi Co. Ltd., Toyonaka, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takuya Kano
- Pain & Neuroscience, Drug Discovery & Disease Research Laboratory, Shionogi Co. Ltd., Toyonaka, Osaka, Japan
| | - Naotaka Horiguchi
- Pain & Neuroscience, Drug Discovery & Disease Research Laboratory, Shionogi Co. Ltd., Toyonaka, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shunji Shinohara
- Pain & Neuroscience, Drug Discovery & Disease Research Laboratory, Shionogi Co. Ltd., Toyonaka, Osaka, Japan
| | - Minoru Hasegawa
- Pain & Neuroscience, Drug Discovery & Disease Research Laboratory, Shionogi Co. Ltd., Toyonaka, Osaka, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Milivojevic V, Sinha R. Central and Peripheral Biomarkers of Stress Response for Addiction Risk and Relapse Vulnerability. Trends Mol Med 2018; 24:173-186. [PMID: 29396148 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2017.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Revised: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Substance use disorders (SUDs) are marked by heterogeneity in clinical symptomatology and high relapse rates following treatment. Here, we describe specific peripheral and central stress responses associated with the pathophysiology of SUDs. We outline potential stress response measures, including hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis markers, autonomic responses, and central structural and functional brain alterations that could be exploited as putative biomarkers in SUDs. We posit that stress responses can be predictive of both the development of SUDs and their high relapsing nature. We examine their potential as candidate biomarkers, as well as the remaining challenges in developing and implementing their application for the prevention and treatment of SUDs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Verica Milivojevic
- The Yale Stress Center, Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, 2 Church Street South, Suite 209, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Rajita Sinha
- The Yale Stress Center, Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, 2 Church Street South, Suite 209, New Haven, CT 06519, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Verplaetse TL, Moore KE, Pittman BP, Roberts W, Oberleitner LM, Smith PH, Cosgrove KP, McKee SA. Intersection of stress and gender in association with transitions in past year DSM-5 substance use disorder diagnoses in the United States. CHRONIC STRESS 2018. [PMID: 29527591 PMCID: PMC5841251 DOI: 10.1177/2470547017752637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background Stress contributes to the development and maintenance of substance use disorders (SUD), with some research suggesting that the impact of stress on SUD is greater in women. However, this has yet to be evaluated in a national dataset, across major substances of abuse. Methods Using data from the newly available U.S. National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC; Wave 3; n=36,309) we evaluated relationships among past year stressful life events (0 or 1 vs. 2+ events, range 0-16) and gender, and their association with transitions (new vs. absent cases; ongoing vs. remitted cases) in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition (DSM-5) alcohol use disorder (AUD), tobacco use disorder (TUD), cannabis use disorder (CUD), and nonmedical prescription opioid use disorder (OUD) diagnoses. Results Having 2 or more stressful life events in the past year increased the odds of having a new AUD, TUD, CUD, and OUD (OR=3.14, 2.15, 5.52, and 3.06, respectively) or ongoing AUD, TUD, and CUD (OR=2.39, 2.62, and 2.95, respectively) compared to 0 or 1 stressful life event. A stress by gender interaction for new vs. absent AUD demonstrated that having 2 or more stressful life events was associated with increased odds of new AUD in men (OR=2.51) and even greater odds of new AUD in women (OR=3.94). Conclusions Results highlight that stress is a robust factor in both men and women with new or ongoing substance use disorders, and that effective treatments for substance use should consider the role of stress in addiction etiology and maintenance. There was little evidence for gender differences in the role of stress on transitions in substance use disorders, except for the onset of alcohol use disorders. Given that rates of alcohol use disorders are increasing in women; the impact of stress needs to be considered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kelly E Moore
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519
| | - Brian P Pittman
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519
| | - Walter Roberts
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519
| | | | - Philip H Smith
- Department of Community Health and Social Medicine, CUNY School of Medicine, New York, NY 10031
| | - Kelly P Cosgrove
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519
| | - Sherry A McKee
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Abstract
Both impulsivity and stress are risk factors for substance abuse, but it is not clear how these two processes interact to alter susceptibility for the disorder. The aim of this project was to examine the pharmacology of a stress-impulsivity interaction in rats. To do so, we tested the effects of yohimbine on impulsive action and then assessed whether behavioural changes could be reduced by antagonists at different receptor subtypes. Male Long-Evans rats were injected with various doses of yohimbine (0-5.0 mg/kg) before testing in the response-inhibition task. In subsequent experiments, yohimbine (2.5 mg/kg) was injected following pretreatment with the following receptor antagonists: corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1, antalarmin (0-20 mg/kg); glucocorticoid, mifepristone (0-30 mg/kg); noradrenergic (NA) α1, prazosin (0-2 mg/kg); NA α2, guanfacine (0-0.5 mg/kg); NA β2, propranolol (0.5-2.0 mg/kg); dopamine D1/5, SCH 39166 (0-0.0625 mg/kg); μ opioid, naloxone (0-2 mg/kg); or 5-HT2A, M100907 (0.005-0.05 mg/kg). In all experiments, impulsive action was measured as increased premature responding. Yohimbine dose dependently increased impulsive action, but the effect was not reversed by antagonist pretreatment. None of the drugs altered any other behavioural measure. We conclude that stress-impulsivity interactions are likely mediated by a synergy of multiple neurotransmitter systems.
Collapse
|
45
|
Kaye JT, Bradford DE, Magruder KP, Curtin JJ. Probing for Neuroadaptations to Unpredictable Stressors in Addiction: Translational Methods and Emerging Evidence. J Stud Alcohol Drugs 2017; 78:353-371. [PMID: 28499100 DOI: 10.15288/jsad.2017.78.353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Stressors clearly contribute to addiction etiology and relapse in humans, but our understanding of specific mechanisms remains limited. Rodent models of addiction offer the power, flexibility, and precision necessary to delineate the causal role and specific mechanisms through which stressors influence alcohol and other drug use. This review describes a program of research using startle potentiation to unpredictable stressors that is well positioned to translate between animal models and clinical research with humans on stress neuroadaptations in addiction. This research rests on a solid foundation provided by three separate pillars of evidence from (a) rodent behavioral neuroscience on stress neuroadaptations in addiction, (b) rodent affective neuroscience on startle potentiation, and (c) human addiction and affective science with startle potentiation. Rodent stress neuroadaptation models implicate adaptations in corticotropin-releasing factor and norepinephrine circuits within the central extended amygdala following chronic alcohol and other drug use that mediate anxious behaviors and stress-induced reinstatement among drug-dependent rodents. Basic affective neuroscience indicates that these same neural mechanisms are involved in startle potentiation to unpredictable stressors in particular (vs. predictable stressors). We believe that synthesis of these evidence bases should focus us on the role of unpredictable stressors in addiction etiology and relapse. Startle potentiation in unpredictable stressor tasks is proposed to provide an attractive and flexible test bed to encourage tight translation and reverse translation between animal models and human clinical research on stress neuroadaptations. Experimental therapeutics approaches focused on unpredictable stressors hold high promise to identify, repurpose, or refine pharmacological and psychosocial interventions for addiction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jesse T Kaye
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
McRae-Clark AL, Cason AM, Kohtz AS, Moran Santa-Maria M, Aston-Jones G, Brady KT. Impact of gender on corticotropin-releasing factor and noradrenergic sensitivity in cocaine use disorder. J Neurosci Res 2017; 95:320-327. [PMID: 27870396 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Responses to stress may be important in understanding gender differences in substance use disorders and may also be a target for development of treatment interventions. A growing body of both preclinical and clinical research supports important underlying gender differences in the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and noradrenergic systems, which may contribute to drug use. Preclinical models have demonstrated increased sensitivity of females to CRF and noradrenergic-induced drug reinstatement compared with males, and, consistent with these findings, human laboratory studies have demonstrated greater sensitivity to corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and noradrenergic stimulation in cocaine-dependent women compared with men. Furthermore, neuroimaging studies have demonstrated increased neural response to stressful stimuli in cocaine-dependent women compared with men as well as showing significant sex differences in the sensitivity of brain regions responsible for regulating the response to CRH. Development of interventions targeting the noradrenergic system and stress response in drug-dependent individuals could have important clinical implications for both women and men. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aimee L McRae-Clark
- Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Angie M Cason
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Amy S Kohtz
- Brain Health Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey
| | | | - Gary Aston-Jones
- Brain Health Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey
| | - Kathleen T Brady
- Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Seo D, Ahluwalia A, Potenza MN, Sinha R. Gender differences in neural correlates of stress-induced anxiety. J Neurosci Res 2017; 95:115-125. [PMID: 27870417 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Revised: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Although gender differences have been identified as a crucial factor for understanding stress-related anxiety and associated clinical disorders, the neural mechanisms underlying these differences remain unclear. To explore gender differences in the neural correlates of stress-induced anxiety, the current study used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine brain responses in 96 healthy men and women with commensurable levels of trait anxiety as they engaged in a personalized guided imagery paradigm to provoke stress and neutral-relaxing experiences. During the task, a significant gender main effect emerged, with men displaying greater responses in the caudate, cingulate gyrus, midbrain, thalamus, and cerebellum. In contrast, women showed greater responses in the posterior insula, temporal gyrus, and occipital lobe. Additionally, a significant anxiety ratings × gender interaction from whole-brain regression analyses was observed in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, left inferior parietal lobe, left temporal gyrus, occipital gyrus, and cerebellum (P < 0.05, whole-brain family-wise error corrected), with positive associations between activity in these regions and stress-induced anxiety in women, but negative associations in men, indicating that men and women differentially use neural resources when experiencing stress-induced anxiety. The findings suggest that in response to stress, there is a greater use of the medial prefrontal-parietal cortices in experiencing subjective anxiety in women, while decreased use of this circuit was associated with increased subjective anxiety states in men. The current study has implications for understanding gender-specific differences in stress-induced anxiety and vulnerability to stress-related clinical disorders, and for developing more effective treatment strategies tailored to each gender. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dongju Seo
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut.,Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, Connecticut
| | | | - Marc N Potenza
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut.,Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, Connecticut.,Department of Neuroscience and Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut.,National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASAColumbia), Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Rajita Sinha
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut.,Department of Neuroscience and Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Milivojevic V, Fox HC, Jayaram-Lindstrom N, Hermes G, Sinha R. Sex differences in guanfacine effects on stress-induced stroop performance in cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2017; 179:275-279. [PMID: 28823835 PMCID: PMC5599361 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Chronic drug abuse leads to sex-specific changes in drug cue and stress physiologic and neuroendocrine reactivity as well as in neural responses to stress and cue-related challenges and in executive function such as inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and self control. Importantly, these functions have been associated with high risk of relapse and treatment. Alpha-2 agonism may enhance inhibitory cognitive processes in the face of stress with sex-specific effects, however this has not been previously assessed in cocaine dependence. METHOD Forty inpatient treatment-seeking cocaine dependent individuals (13F/27M) were randomly assigned to receive either placebo or up to 3mgs of Guanfacine. Three laboratory sessions were conducted following 3-4 weeks of abstinence, where patients were exposed to three 10-min personalized guided imagery conditions (stress, drug cue, combined stress/cue), one per day, on consecutive days in a random, counterbalanced order. The Stroop task was administered at baseline and immediately following imagery exposure. RESULTS Guanfacine treated women improved their performance on the Stroop task following exposure to all 3 imagery conditions compared with placebo women (p=0.02). This improvement in cognitive inhibitory performance was not observed in the men. CONCLUSIONS Enhancing the ability to cognitively regulate in the face of stress, drug cues and combined stress and drug cue reactivity may be key targets for medications development in cocaine dependent women.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Verica Milivojevic
- The Yale Stress Center, Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry 2 Church Street South, Suite 209, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA.
| | - Helen C Fox
- Stony Brook University, Health Sciences Center, T10-040B, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Nitya Jayaram-Lindstrom
- Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, and Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm County Council, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gretchen Hermes
- The Yale Stress Center, Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry 2 Church Street South, Suite 209, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA; APT Foundation, One Long Wharf Drive, New Haven, CT, 065111, USA
| | - Rajita Sinha
- The Yale Stress Center, Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry 2 Church Street South, Suite 209, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Preston KL, Kowalczyk WJ, Phillips KA, Jobes ML, Vahabzadeh M, Lin JL, Mezghanni M, Epstein DH. Context and craving during stressful events in the daily lives of drug-dependent patients. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:2631-2642. [PMID: 28593441 PMCID: PMC5709189 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-017-4663-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Knowing how stress manifests in the lives of people with substance-use disorders could help inform mobile "just in time" treatment. OBJECTIVES The purpose of this paper is to examine discrete episodes of stress, as distinct from the fluctuations in background stress assessed in most EMA studies. METHODS For up to 16 weeks, outpatients on opioid-agonist treatment carried smartphones on which they initiated an entry whenever they experienced a stressful event (SE) and when randomly prompted (RP) three times daily. Participants reported the severity of stress and craving and the context of the report (location, activities, companions). Decomposition of covariance was used to separate within-person from between-person effects; r effect sizes below are within-person. RESULTS Participants (158 of 182; 87%) made 1787 stress-event entries. Craving for opioids increased with stress severity (r effect = 0.50). Stress events tended to occur in social company (with acquaintances, 0.63, friends, 0.17, or on the phone, 0.41) rather than with family (spouse, -0.14; child, -0.18), and in places with more overall activity (bars, 0.32; outside, 0.28; walking, 0.28) and more likelihood of unexpected experiences (with strangers, 0.17). Being on the internet was slightly protective (-0.22). Our prior finding that being at the workplace protects against background stress in our participants was partly supported in these stressful-event data. CONCLUSIONS The contexts of specific stressful events differ from those we have seen in prior studies of ongoing background stress. However, both are associated with drug craving.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenzie L. Preston
- Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Baltimore, MD,to whom reprint requests should be sent, , phone: 443.740.2326, fax: 443.740.2318
| | - William J. Kowalczyk
- Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Baltimore, MD
| | - Karran A. Phillips
- Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Baltimore, MD
| | - Michelle L. Jobes
- Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Baltimore, MD
| | - Massoud Vahabzadeh
- Biomedical Informatics Section, Administrative Management Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 251 Bayview Blvd., Suite 200, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Baltimore, MD, 21224
| | - Jia-Ling Lin
- Biomedical Informatics Section, Administrative Management Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 251 Bayview Blvd., Suite 200, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Baltimore, MD, 21224
| | - Mustapha Mezghanni
- Biomedical Informatics Section, Administrative Management Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 251 Bayview Blvd., Suite 200, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Baltimore, MD, 21224
| | - David H. Epstein
- Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Baltimore, MD
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Vranjkovic O, Pina M, Kash TL, Winder DG. The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in drug-associated behavior and affect: A circuit-based perspective. Neuropharmacology 2017; 122:100-106. [PMID: 28351600 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Revised: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis was first described nearly a century ago and has since emerged as a region central to motivated behavior and affective states. The last several decades have firmly established a role for the BNST in drug-associated behavior and implicated this region in addiction-related processes. Whereas past approaches used to characterize the BNST have focused on a more general role of this region and its subnuclei in behavior, more recent work has begun to reveal its elaborate circuitry and cellular components. Such recent developments are largely owed to methodological advances, which have made possible efforts previously deemed intractable, such as tracing of long-range cell-type specific projections and identifying functional efferent and afferent connections. In this review, we integrate earlier foundational work with more recent and advanced studies to construct a broad overview of the molecular neurocircuitry of the BNST in drug-associated behavior and affect. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled "Alcoholism".
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Vranjkovic
- Vanderbilt Center for Addiction Research, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, USA; Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, USA
| | - Melanie Pina
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
| | - Thomas L Kash
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
| | - Danny G Winder
- Vanderbilt Center for Addiction Research, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, USA; Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, USA; Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
| |
Collapse
|