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Otten JG, Williams L, Refsnider JM. Survival outcomes of rehabilitated riverine turtles following a freshwater diluted bitumen oil spill. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 311:119968. [PMID: 35977636 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Rehabilitation is often used to mitigate adverse effects of oil spills on wildlife. With an increase in production of alternatives to conventional crude oil such as diluted bitumen (dilbit), emergency spill responders and wildlife rehabilitators need information regarding the health and survival of free-ranging vertebrates exposed to dilbit under natural conditions. In 2010, one of the largest freshwater oil spills in the United States occurred in the Kalamazoo River in Michigan, when over 3.2 million liters of spilled dilbit impacted 56 km of riverine habitat. During 2010 and 2011 cleanup efforts, thousands of northern map turtles (Graptemys geographica) were captured from oiled stretches of the river, cleaned, rehabilitated, and released. We conducted extensive mark-recapture surveys in 2010, 2011, and 2018-2021, and used this dataset to evaluate the monthly survival probability of turtles 1-14 months post-spill and 8-11 years post-spill based on whether turtles were temporarily rehabilitated and released, overwintered in captivity and then released, or were released without rehabilitation. We found that rehabilitated or overwintered turtles had a higher probability of survival 1-14 months post-spill than non-rehabilitated turtles; however, 8-11 years post-spill the among-group differences in monthly survival probability had become negligible. Additionally, following the oil spill in 2010, nearly 6% of northern map turtles were recovered dead, died during rehabilitation, or suffered injuries that precluded release back into the wild. Our results demonstrate that exposure to dilbit in free ranging turtles causes direct mortality, while effort spent on the capture and rehabilitation of oiled freshwater turtles is important as it increases monthly survival 1-14 months post-spill.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua G Otten
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Toledo, Wolfe Hall Suite 1235, 2801 W Bancroft St., Toledo, OH, 43606-3390, USA.
| | - Lisa Williams
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Michigan Field Office, 2651 Coolidge Road, Suite 101, East Lansing, MI, 48823, USA
| | - Jeanine M Refsnider
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Toledo, Wolfe Hall Suite 1235, 2801 W Bancroft St., Toledo, OH, 43606-3390, USA
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2
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Tinker MT, Bodkin JL, Bowen L, Ballachey B, Bentall G, Burdin A, Coletti H, Esslinger G, Hatfield BB, Kenner MC, Kloecker K, Konar B, Miles AK, Monson DH, Murray MJ, Weitzman BP, Estes JA. Sea otter population collapse in southwest Alaska: assessing ecological covariates, consequences, and causal factors. ECOL MONOGR 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecm.1472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Tim Tinker
- U.S. Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center 2885 Mission St. Santa Cruz California 95060 USA
| | - James L. Bodkin
- U.S. Geological Survey Alaska Science Center 4210 University Dr. Anchorage Alaska 99508 USA
| | - Lizabeth Bowen
- U.S. Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center 3020 State University Drive Sacramento California 95819 USA
| | - Brenda Ballachey
- U.S. Geological Survey Alaska Science Center 4210 University Dr. Anchorage Alaska 99508 USA
| | - Gena Bentall
- Sea Otter Savvy 1961 Main St. 199 Watsonville California 95076 USA
| | - Alexander Burdin
- Kamchatka Branch of Pacific Geographical Institute FED Russian Academy of Sciences Partizanskaya, 6 Petropavlovsk‐Kamchatsky 683000 Russia
| | - Heather Coletti
- Southwest Alaska Inventory and Monitoring Network National Park Service 4175 Geist Rd. Fairbanks Alaska 99709 USA
| | - George Esslinger
- U.S. Geological Survey Alaska Science Center 4210 University Dr. Anchorage Alaska 99508 USA
| | - Brian B. Hatfield
- U.S. Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center 2885 Mission St. Santa Cruz California 95060 USA
| | - Michael C. Kenner
- U.S. Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center 2885 Mission St. Santa Cruz California 95060 USA
| | - Kimberly Kloecker
- U.S. Geological Survey Alaska Science Center 4210 University Dr. Anchorage Alaska 99508 USA
| | - Brenda Konar
- College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences University of Alaska Fairbanks PO Box 757220 Fairbanks Alaska 99775 USA
| | - A. Keith Miles
- U.S. Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center 3020 State University Drive Sacramento California 95819 USA
| | - Daniel H. Monson
- U.S. Geological Survey Alaska Science Center 4210 University Dr. Anchorage Alaska 99508 USA
| | | | - Benjamin P. Weitzman
- U.S. Geological Survey Alaska Science Center 4210 University Dr. Anchorage Alaska 99508 USA
| | - James A. Estes
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California 130 McAllister Way Santa Cruz California 95060 USA
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Ruberg EJ, Elliott JE, Williams TD. Review of petroleum toxicity and identifying common endpoints for future research on diluted bitumen toxicity in marine mammals. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2021; 30:537-551. [PMID: 33761025 PMCID: PMC8060214 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-021-02373-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Large volumes of conventional crude oil continue to be shipped by sea from production to consumption areas across the globe. In addition, unconventional petroleum products also transverse pelagic habitats; for example, diluted bitumen from Canada's oilsands which is shipped along the Pacific coast to the United States and Asia. Therefore, there is a continuing need to assess the toxicological consequences of chronic and catastrophic petroleum spillage on marine wildlife. Peer-reviewed literature on the toxicity of unconventional petroleum such as diluted bitumen exists for teleost fish, but not for fauna such as marine mammals. In order to inform research needs for unconventional petroleum toxicity we conducted a comprehensive literature review of conventional petroleum toxicity on marine mammals. The common endpoints observed in conventional crude oil exposures and oil spills include hematological injury, modulation of immune function and organ weight, genotoxicity, eye irritation, neurotoxicity, lung disease, adrenal dysfunction, metabolic and clinical abnormalities related to oiling of the pelage, behavioural impacts, decreased reproductive success, mortality, and population-level declines. Based on our findings and the body of literature we accessed, our recommendations for future research include: 1) improved baseline data on PAH and metals exposure in marine mammals, 2) improved pre- and post-spill data on marine mammal populations, 3) the use of surrogate mammalian models for petroleum toxicity testing, and 4) the need for empirical data on the toxicity of unconventional petroleum to marine mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J Ruberg
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - J E Elliott
- Pacific Wildlife Research Centre, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Delta, BC, Canada.
| | - T D Williams
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
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4
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Berger RG, Aslund MW, Sanders G, Charlebois M, Knopper LD, Bresee KE. A multiple lines of evidence approach for the ecological risk assessment of an accidental bitumen release from a steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) well in the Athabasca oil sands region. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 542:495-504. [PMID: 26520273 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.10.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
To assess the ecological impacts of two independent accidental bitumen releases from two steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) wells in the Athabasca oil sands region, a multiple lines of evidence (LOE) approach was developed. Following the release in 2010, action was taken to minimize environmental impact, including the selective removal of the most highly impacted vegetation and the use of oil socks to minimize possible runoff. An ecological risk assessment (ERA) was then conducted based on reported concentrations of bitumen related contaminants in soil, vegetation, and water. Results of biological assessments conducted at the site were also included in the risk characterization. Overall, the conclusion of the ERA was that the likelihood of long-term adverse health effects to ecological receptors in the area was negligible. To provide evidence for this conclusion, a small mammal sampling plan targeting Southern red-back voles (Myodes gapperi) was carried out at two sites and two relevant reference areas. Voles were readily collected at all locations and no statistically significant differences in morphometric measurements (i.e., body mass, length, foot length, and adjusted liver weight) were found between animals collected from impact zones of varying levels of coverage. Additionally, no trends corresponding with bitumen coverage were observed with respect to metal body burden in voles for metals that were previously identified in the source bitumen. Hepatic ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity was statistically significantly elevated in voles collected from the high impact zones of sites compared to those collected from the reference areas, a finding that is indicative of continued exposure to contaminants. However, this increase in EROD was not correlated with any observable adverse population-wide biological outcomes. Therefore the biological sampling program supported the conclusion of the initial ERA and supported the hypothesis of no significant long-term population-wide ecological impact of the accidental bitumen releases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert G Berger
- Intrinsik Health Sciences Inc., 6605 Hurontario Street, Suite 500, Mississauga, Ontario L5T 0A3, Canada
| | - Melissa Whitfield Aslund
- Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc., 6605 Hurontario Street, Suite 500, Mississauga, Ontario L5T 0A3, Canada
| | - Greg Sanders
- Omnia Ecological Services, 722 27th Avenue NW, Calgary, Alberta T2M 2J3, Canada
| | - Michael Charlebois
- Omnia Ecological Services, 722 27th Avenue NW, Calgary, Alberta T2M 2J3, Canada
| | - Loren D Knopper
- Stantec Consulting Ltd., 200-835 Paramount Drive Stoney Creek, Ontario L8J 0B4, Canada
| | - Karl E Bresee
- Intrinsik Environmental Sciences Inc., 736 - 8th Avenue SW, Suite 1060, Calgary, Alberta T2P 1H4, Canada.
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5
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Schwacke LH, Smith CR, Townsend FI, Wells RS, Hart LB, Balmer BC, Collier TK, De Guise S, Fry MM, Guillette LJ, Lamb SV, Lane SM, McFee WE, Place NJ, Tumlin MC, Ylitalo GM, Zolman ES, Rowles TK. Health of common bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, following the deepwater horizon oil spill. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:93-103. [PMID: 24350796 DOI: 10.1021/es403610f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The oil spill resulting from the explosion of the Deepwater Horizon drilling platform initiated immediate concern for marine wildlife, including common bottlenose dolphins in sensitive coastal habitats. To evaluate potential sublethal effects on dolphins, health assessments were conducted in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, an area that received heavy and prolonged oiling, and in a reference site, Sarasota Bay, Florida, where oil was not observed. Dolphins were temporarily captured, received a veterinary examination, and were then released. Dolphins sampled in Barataria Bay showed evidence of hypoadrenocorticism, consistent with adrenal toxicity as previously reported for laboratory mammals exposed to oil. Barataria Bay dolphins were 5 times more likely to have moderate-severe lung disease, generally characterized by significant alveolar interstitial syndrome, lung masses, and pulmonary consolidation. Of 29 dolphins evaluated from Barataria Bay, 48% were given a guarded or worse prognosis, and 17% were considered poor or grave, indicating that they were not expected to survive. Disease conditions in Barataria Bay dolphins were significantly greater in prevalence and severity than those in Sarasota Bay dolphins, as well as those previously reported in other wild dolphin populations. Many disease conditions observed in Barataria Bay dolphins are uncommon but consistent with petroleum hydrocarbon exposure and toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori H Schwacke
- National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , 331 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, South Carolina 29412, United States
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6
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Schwartz JA, Aldridge BM, Lasley BL, Snyder PW, Stott JL, Mohr FC. Chronic fuel oil toxicity in American mink (Mustela vison): systemic and hematological effects of ingestion of a low-concentration of bunker C fuel oil. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2004; 200:146-58. [PMID: 15476867 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2004.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2003] [Accepted: 04/06/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Petroleum oil enters the coastal marine environment through various sources; marine mammals such as sea otters that inhabit this environment may be exposed to low concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons through ingestion of contaminated prey. The inability to perform controlled studies in free-ranging animals hinders investigations of the effects of chronic petroleum oil exposure on sea otter morbidity and mortality, necessitating the development of a reliable laboratory model. We examined the effects of oral exposure to 500 ppm bunker C fuel oil over 113-118 days on American mink, a species phylogenetically related to the sea otter. Hematological parameters and organs were examined for fuel oil-associated changes. Hepatic cytochrome P4501A1 mRNA expression and fecal cortisol concentrations were also measured. Ingestion of fuel oil was associated with a decrease in erythrocyte count, hemoglobin concentration (Hgb), hematocrit (HCT), and an increase in mean corpuscular volume (MCV). Total leukocytes were elevated in the fuel oil group from increases in neutrophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes. Significant interactions between fuel oil and antigen challenge were found for erythrocyte parameters, monocyte and lymphocyte counts. Liver and adrenal weights were increased although mesenteric lymph node weights were decreased in the fuel oil group. Hepatic cytochrome P4501A1 mRNA was elevated in the fuel oil group. Fecal cortisol concentration did not vary between the two groups. Our findings show that fuel oil exposure alters circulating leukocyte numbers, erythrocyte homeostasis, hepatic metabolism and adrenal physiology and establish a framework to use mink as a model for sea otters in studying the systemic effects of marine contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Schwartz
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis 95616-8739, USA
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Louis ED, Murray MJ, Miller MA, Pullman SL, Vonsattel JPG. Late-life action tremor in a southern sea otter (enhydris lutris nereis). Mov Disord 2004; 19:222-6. [PMID: 14978682 DOI: 10.1002/mds.10645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Although tremor is highly prevalent in human beings, there are few reports of tremor occurring in other mammals. Such tremor can further our insight into the mechanisms and anatomical basis of human tremor disorders. We report on a southern sea otter with a slowly progressive 6.5 to 8.5 Hz action tremor of late life that shared several clinical characteristics with essential tremor. The main pathological finding was in the cerebellum, where there was extensive vacuolation of Purkinje cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elan D Louis
- Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA.
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8
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Ballachey BE, Bodkin JL, Howlin S, Doroff AM, Rebar AH. Correlates to survival of juvenile sea otters in Prince William Sound, Alaska, 19921993. CAN J ZOOL 2003. [DOI: 10.1139/z03-121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We estimated survival of sea otters (Enhydra lutris) for 1 year post weaning during 19921993 in Prince William Sound (PWS), location of the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. We sampled 38 pups in eastern PWS (EPWS), an unoiled area occupied by sea otters for <15 years, and 33 pups from oiled western PWS (WPWS), occupied for >25 years. We compared survival between areas, sexes, and condition groups. We also examined the relation of blood parameters to survival. Survival was estimated at 0.74 in EPWS and 0.52 in WPWS. Female survival was 0.86 in EPWS and 0.64 in WPWS, whereas male survival was lower, 0.61 in EPWS and 0.44 in WPWS. Sea otters from EPWS were in better condition (mass/length) than WPWS sea otters. Pups in better condition had higher survival in EPWS but not in WPWS. Foraging success was greater in EPWS than in WPWS, consistent with either an effect of length of occupation or the effects of oil on the prey base or a combination of these effects. Area differences in blood parameters suggested liver damage in WPWS sea otters, perhaps resulting from continued exposure to oil. Thus, both length of occupation and oiling history likely influenced juvenile survival in PWS.
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Saba VS, Spotila JR. Survival and behavior of freshwater turtles after rehabilitation from an oil spill. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2003; 126:213-223. [PMID: 12927492 DOI: 10.1016/s0269-7491(03)00192-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
An oil spill in February 2000 at the John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge in southeastern Pennsylvania affected four species of freshwater turtles including painted turtles (Chrysemys picta), snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina), red-eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta), and red-bellied turtles (Pseudemys rubriventris). In the summer and fall of 2000, there were no differences in survival, home range, and temperature preference of 16 oil exposed/rehabilitated (OER) turtles, 18 possibly exposed (PE) turtles, and 32 non-exposed (NE) turtles as measured with temperature sensitive radio transmitters. Post-release mortality or transmitter loss was not correlated to oil exposure (OER = 25%, PE = 22%, NE = 31%). There were no statistically significant differences in home range minimum convex polygon area, (0.28<P <0.87) and water temperature preference (0.35<P <0.99) between OER, PE, and NE male and female C. picta, C. serpentina, and T. scripta. Mean home ranges scaled from 5.0 ha +/- 4.1 (male C. serpentina ) to 25.5 ha +/- 5.0 (male P. rubriventris) and mean water temperatures occupied varied from 19.6 degrees C +/- 6.9 (female C. serpentina) to 22.3 degrees C +/- 8.5 (female C. picta). Rehabilitation of oil exposed freshwater turtles is effective in restoring these animals to normal behavior in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- V S Saba
- School of Environmental Science, Engineering, and Policy, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Mazet JK, Gardner IA, Jessup DA, Lowenstine LJ, Boyce WM. Evaluation of changes in hematologic and clinical biochemical values after exposure to petroleum products in mink (Mustela vison) as a model for assessment of sea otters (Enhydra lutris). Am J Vet Res 2000; 61:1197-203. [PMID: 11039547 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.2000.61.1197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of petroleum exposure on hematologic and clinical biochemical results of mink and to identify variables that may be useful for making management decisions involving sea otters (Enhydra lutris) that have been exposed to oil in their environment. ANIMALS 122 American mink (Mustela vison). PROCEDURES Mink were exposed once to a slick of oil (Alaskan North Slope crude oil or bunker C fuel oil) on seawater or via low-level contamination of their daily rations. RESULTS In the acute phase of exposure, petroleum directly affected RBC, WBC, neutrophil, and lymphocyte counts, fibrinogen, sodium, calcium, creatinine, total protein, and cholesterol concentrations, and alanine transaminase, creatine kinase, alkaline phosphatase, and gamma-glutamyltransferase activities. Aspartate transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, gamma-glutamyltransferase, and lactate dehydrogenase activities and cholesterol concentration also varied as a result of chronic low-level contamination of feed. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Our results are in agreement with reports that attribute increased alanine transaminase and alkaline phosphatase activities and decreased total protein concentration to petroleum exposure in sea otters during an oil spill. Sodium, calcium, creatinine, cholesterol, and lactate dehydrogenase may be valuable variables to assess for guidance during initial treatment of sea otters exposed to oil spills as well as for predicting which petroleum-exposed sea otters will reproduce following an oil spill. Measurement of these variables should aid wildlife professionals in making decisions regarding treatment of sea otters after oil spills.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Mazet
- Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis 95616, USA
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Monson DH, Doak DF, Ballachey BE, Johnson A, Bodkin JL. Long-term impacts of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on sea otters, assessed through age-dependent mortality patterns. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97:6562-7. [PMID: 10823920 PMCID: PMC18659 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.120163397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We use age distributions of sea otters (Enhydra lutris) found dead on beaches of western Prince William Sound, Alaska, between 1976 and 1998 in conjunction with time-varying demographic models to test for lingering effects from the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. Our results show that sea otters in this area had decreased survival rates in the years following the spill and that the effects of the spill on annual survival increased rather than dissipated for older animals. Otters born after the 1989 spill were affected less than those alive in March 1989, but do show continuing negative effects through 1998. Population-wide effects of the spill appear to have slowly dissipated through time, due largely to the loss of cohorts alive during the spill. Our results demonstrate that the difficult-to-detect long-term impacts of environmental disasters may still be highly significant and can be rigorously analyzed by using a combination of population data, modeling techniques, and statistical analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Monson
- United States Geological Survey, Alaska Biological Science Center, 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK 99503, USA.
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12
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Ethics of Interventions for the Welfare of Free-Living Wild Animals. Anim Welf 1996. [DOI: 10.1017/s0962728600018820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThere is growing interest in and support for the development of disease prevention measures in free-living wildlife and for the rescue, treatment and rehabilitation of wild animals that are sick and injured. In some cases these endeavours may be of importance to the conservation of populations but frequently they are undertaken for welfare rather than conservation reasons. There are circumstances in which wildlife welfare can be improved by therapeutic intervention but the difficulties, and their potentially harmful consequences, should not be underestimated. Interventions for the welfare of free-living wild animals whose fate we control or influence and which are therefore, to some extent, under our stewardship, are consistent with the tradition of humanity for and stewardship of domesticated or captive animals. However, it is suggested here that the decision to treat sick or injured free-living wild animals should not be based on welfare grounds alone.
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