1
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Bhattacharjee P, Wang D, Anderson D, Buckler JN, de Geus E, Yan FA, Polekhina G, Schittenhelm R, Creek DJ, Harris LD, Sadler AJ. The immune response to RNA suppresses nucleic acid synthesis by limiting ribose 5-phosphate. EMBO J 2024:10.1038/s44318-024-00100-w. [PMID: 38778156 DOI: 10.1038/s44318-024-00100-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
During infection viruses hijack host cell metabolism to promote their replication. Here, analysis of metabolite alterations in macrophages exposed to poly I:C recognises that the antiviral effector Protein Kinase RNA-activated (PKR) suppresses glucose breakdown within the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). This pathway runs parallel to central glycolysis and is critical to producing NADPH and pentose precursors for nucleotides. Changes in metabolite levels between wild-type and PKR-ablated macrophages show that PKR controls the generation of ribose 5-phosphate, in a manner distinct from its established function in gene expression but dependent on its kinase activity. PKR phosphorylates and inhibits the Ribose 5-Phosphate Isomerase A (RPIA), thereby preventing interconversion of ribulose- to ribose 5-phosphate. This activity preserves redox control but decreases production of ribose 5-phosphate for nucleotide biosynthesis. Accordingly, the PKR-mediated immune response to RNA suppresses nucleic acid production. In line, pharmacological targeting of the PPP during infection decreases the replication of the Herpes simplex virus. These results identify an immune response-mediated control of host cell metabolism and suggest targeting the RPIA as a potential innovative antiviral treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pushpak Bhattacharjee
- Centre for Innate Immunity and Infectious Diseases, Hudson Institute of Medical Research and Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3168, Australia
| | - Die Wang
- Centre for Innate Immunity and Infectious Diseases, Hudson Institute of Medical Research and Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3168, Australia
| | - Dovile Anderson
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Joshua N Buckler
- Ferrier Research Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, Lower Hutt, 5010, New Zealand
| | - Eveline de Geus
- Centre for Innate Immunity and Infectious Diseases, Hudson Institute of Medical Research and Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3168, Australia
| | - Feng Alex Yan
- Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Department of Clinical Hematology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3004, Australia
| | - Galina Polekhina
- Department of Epidemiology & Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia
| | - Ralf Schittenhelm
- Monash Proteomics & Metabolomics Facility, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Darren J Creek
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Lawrence D Harris
- Ferrier Research Institute, Victoria University of Wellington, Lower Hutt, 5010, New Zealand
| | - Anthony J Sadler
- Centre for Innate Immunity and Infectious Diseases, Hudson Institute of Medical Research and Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3168, Australia.
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2
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Shayota BJ, Donti TR, Xiao J, Gijavanekar C, Kennedy AD, Hubert L, Rodan L, Vanderpluym C, Nowak C, Bjornsson HT, Ganetzky R, Berry GT, Pappan KL, Sutton VR, Sun Q, Elsea SH. Untargeted metabolomics as an unbiased approach to the diagnosis of inborn errors of metabolism of the non-oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway. Mol Genet Metab 2020; 131:147-154. [PMID: 32828637 PMCID: PMC8630378 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2020.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) involving the non-oxidative pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) include the two relatively rare conditions, transketolase deficiency and transaldolase deficiency, both of which can be difficult to diagnosis given their non-specific clinical presentations. Current biochemical testing approaches require an index of suspicion to consider targeted urine polyol testing. To determine whether a broad-spectrum biochemical test could accurately identify a specific metabolic pattern defining IEMs of the non-oxidative PPP, we employed the use of clinical metabolomic profiling as an unbiased novel approach to diagnosis. Subjects with molecularly confirmed IEMs of the PPP were included in this study. Targeted quantitative analysis of polyols in urine and plasma samples was accomplished with chromatography and mass spectrometry. Semi-quantitative unbiased metabolomic analysis of urine and plasma samples was achieved by assessing small molecules via liquid chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Results from untargeted and targeted analyses were then compared and analyzed for diagnostic acuity. Two siblings with transketolase (TKT) deficiency and three unrelated individuals with transaldolase (TALDO) deficiency were identified for inclusion in the study. For both IEMs, targeted polyol testing and untargeted metabolomic testing on urine and/or plasma samples identified typical perturbations of the respective disorder. Additionally, untargeted metabolomic testing revealed elevations in other PPP metabolites not typically measured with targeted polyol testing, including ribonate, ribose, and erythronate for TKT deficiency and ribonate, erythronate, and sedoheptulose 7-phosphate in TALDO deficiency. Non-PPP alternations were also noted involving tryptophan, purine, and pyrimidine metabolism for both TKT and TALDO deficient patients. Targeted polyol testing and untargeted metabolomic testing methods were both able to identify specific biochemical patterns indicative of TKT and TALDO deficiency in both plasma and urine samples. In addition, untargeted metabolomics was able to identify novel biomarkers, thereby expanding the current knowledge of both conditions and providing further insight into potential underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. Furthermore, untargeted metabolomic testing offers the advantage of having a single effective biochemical screening test for identification of rare IEMs, like TKT and TALDO deficiencies, that may otherwise go undiagnosed due to their generally non-specific clinical presentations.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Biomarkers/blood
- Carbohydrate Metabolism, Inborn Errors/blood
- Carbohydrate Metabolism, Inborn Errors/genetics
- Carbohydrate Metabolism, Inborn Errors/metabolism
- Carbohydrate Metabolism, Inborn Errors/pathology
- Child
- Child, Preschool
- Chromatography, Liquid
- Female
- Humans
- Infant
- Male
- Mass Spectrometry
- Metabolism, Inborn Errors/blood
- Metabolism, Inborn Errors/genetics
- Metabolism, Inborn Errors/metabolism
- Metabolism, Inborn Errors/pathology
- Metabolomics
- Pentose Phosphate Pathway/genetics
- Transaldolase/blood
- Transaldolase/deficiency
- Transaldolase/genetics
- Transaldolase/metabolism
- Transketolase/blood
- Transketolase/deficiency
- Transketolase/genetics
- Young Adult
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Shayota
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Taraka R Donti
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jing Xiao
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Baylor Genetics, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | | | - Leroy Hubert
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Lance Rodan
- Division of Genetics and Genomics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Catherine Nowak
- Division of Genetics and Genomics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Hans T Bjornsson
- McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland; Landspitali University Hospital, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Rebecca Ganetzky
- Division of Human Genetics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Gerard T Berry
- Division of Genetics and Genomics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - V Reid Sutton
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Baylor Genetics, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Qin Sun
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Baylor Genetics, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Sarah H Elsea
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Baylor Genetics, Houston, TX, USA.
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3
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Guo J, Zhang Q, Su Y, Lu X, Wang Y, Yin M, Hu W, Wen W, Lei QY. Arginine methylation of ribose-5-phosphate isomerase A senses glucose to promote human colorectal cancer cell survival. SCIENCE CHINA-LIFE SCIENCES 2020; 63:1394-1405. [PMID: 32157557 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-019-1562-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Cancer cells remodel their metabolic network to adapt to variable nutrient availability. Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) plays protective and biosynthetic roles by oxidizing glucose to generate reducing power and ribose. How cancer cells modulate PPP activity in response to glucose supply remains unclear. Here we show that ribose-5-phosphate isomerase A (RPIA), an enzyme in PPP, directly interacts with co-activator associated arginine methyltransferase 1 (CARM1) and is methylated at arginine 42 (R42). R42 methylation up-regulates the catalytic activity of RPIA. Furthermore, glucose deprivation strengthens the binding of CARM1 with RPIA to induce R42 hypermethylation. Insufficient glucose supply links to RPIA hypermethylation at R42, which increases oxidative PPP flux. RPIA methylation supports ROS clearance by enhancing NADPH production and fuels nucleic acid synthesis by increasing ribose supply. Importantly, RPIA methylation at R42 significantly potentiates colorectal cancer cell survival under glucose starvation. Collectively, RPIA methylation connects glucose availability to nucleotide synthesis and redox homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jizheng Guo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Qixiang Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Ying Su
- Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.,Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Xiaochen Lu
- Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.,Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yiping Wang
- Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.,Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Miao Yin
- Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.,Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Weiguo Hu
- Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.,Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Wenyu Wen
- Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Qun-Ying Lei
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China. .,Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China. .,Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China. .,State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
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4
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Segal J, Mülleder M, Krüger A, Adler T, Scholze‐Wittler M, Becker L, Calzada‐Wack J, Garrett L, Hölter SM, Rathkolb B, Rozman J, Racz I, Fischer R, Busch DH, Neff F, Klingenspor M, Klopstock T, Grüning N, Michel S, Lukaszewska‐McGreal B, Voigt I, Hartmann L, Timmermann B, Lehrach H, Wolf E, Wurst W, Gailus‐Durner V, Fuchs H, H. de Angelis M, Schrewe H, Yuneva M, Ralser M. Low catalytic activity is insufficient to induce disease pathology in triosephosphate isomerase deficiency. J Inherit Metab Dis 2019; 42:839-849. [PMID: 31111503 PMCID: PMC7887927 DOI: 10.1002/jimd.12105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Triosephosphate isomerase (TPI) deficiency is a fatal genetic disorder characterized by hemolytic anemia and neurological dysfunction. Although the enzyme defect in TPI was discovered in the 1960s, the exact etiology of the disease is still debated. Some aspects indicate the disease could be caused by insufficient enzyme activity, whereas other observations indicate it could be a protein misfolding disease with tissue-specific differences in TPI activity. We generated a mouse model in which exchange of a conserved catalytic amino acid residue (isoleucine to valine, Ile170Val) reduces TPI specific activity without affecting the stability of the protein dimer. TPIIle170Val/Ile170Val mice exhibit an approximately 85% reduction in TPI activity consistently across all examined tissues, which is a stronger average, but more consistent, activity decline than observed in patients or symptomatic mouse models that carry structural defect mutant alleles. While monitoring protein expression levels revealed no evidence for protein instability, metabolite quantification indicated that glycolysis is affected by the active site mutation. TPIIle170Val/Ile170Val mice develop normally and show none of the disease symptoms associated with TPI deficiency. Therefore, without the stability defect that affects TPI activity in a tissue-specific manner, a strong decline in TPI catalytic activity is not sufficient to explain the pathological onset of TPI deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Segal
- The Molecular Biology of Metabolism Laboratory, Francis Crick InstituteLondonUK
| | - Michael Mülleder
- The Molecular Biology of Metabolism Laboratory, Francis Crick InstituteLondonUK
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular GeneticsBerlinGermany
| | - Antje Krüger
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular GeneticsBerlinGermany
| | - Thure Adler
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology, and HygieneMunichGermany
| | | | - Lore Becker
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
- Friedrich‐Baur‐Institute, Department of NeurologyLudwig‐Maximilians‐Universität MünchenMunichGermany
| | - Julia Calzada‐Wack
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
- Institute of Pathology, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
| | - Lillian Garrett
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
| | - Sabine M. Hölter
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
| | - Birgit Rathkolb
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
- Chair for Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Gene CenterLudwig‐Maximilians‐Universität MünchenMunichGermany
- Member of German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
| | - Jan Rozman
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
- Member of German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
- Molecular Nutritional MedicineElse Kröner‐Fresenius Center, TUMFreising‐WeihenstephanGermany
| | - Ildiko Racz
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
| | - Ralf Fischer
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
| | - Dirk H. Busch
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology, and HygieneMunichGermany
| | - Frauke Neff
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
- Institute of Pathology, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
| | - Martin Klingenspor
- Molecular Nutritional MedicineElse Kröner‐Fresenius Center, TUMFreising‐WeihenstephanGermany
- ZIEL – Institute for Food and HealthTechnical University MunichFreising‐WeihenstephanGermany
| | - Thomas Klopstock
- Friedrich‐Baur‐Institute, Department of NeurologyLudwig‐Maximilians‐Universität MünchenMunichGermany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy)Adolf‐Butenandt‐Institut, Ludwig‐Maximilians‐Universität MünchenMunichGermany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE) Site MunichMunichGermany
| | | | - Steve Michel
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular GeneticsBerlinGermany
| | | | - Ingo Voigt
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular GeneticsBerlinGermany
| | | | | | - Hans Lehrach
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular GeneticsBerlinGermany
| | - Eckhard Wolf
- Chair for Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Gene CenterLudwig‐Maximilians‐Universität MünchenMunichGermany
| | - Wolfgang Wurst
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy)Adolf‐Butenandt‐Institut, Ludwig‐Maximilians‐Universität MünchenMunichGermany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE) Site MunichMunichGermany
- Chair of Developmental GeneticsTUMFreising‐WeihenstephanGermany
| | - Valérie Gailus‐Durner
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
| | - Helmut Fuchs
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
| | - Martin H. de Angelis
- German Mouse Clinic, Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
- Member of German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD)Neuherberg/MunichGermany
- Chair of Experimental GeneticsCenter of Life and Food Sciences Weihenstephan, TUMFreising‐WeihenstephanGermany
| | | | - Mariia Yuneva
- Oncogenes and Tumour Metabolism LaboratoryThe Francis Crick InstituteLondonUK
| | - Markus Ralser
- The Molecular Biology of Metabolism Laboratory, Francis Crick InstituteLondonUK
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular GeneticsBerlinGermany
- Cambridge Systems Biology Centre and Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Department of BiochemistryCharitè Universitätsmedizin BerlinBerlinGermany
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5
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Kaur P, Wamelink MMC, van der Knaap MS, Girisha KM, Shukla A. Confirmation of a Rare Genetic Leukoencephalopathy due to a Novel Bi-allelic Variant in RPIA. Eur J Med Genet 2019; 62:103708. [PMID: 31247379 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmg.2019.103708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Ribose 5-phosphate isomerase deficiency is a rare genetic leukoencephalopathy caused by pathogenic sequence variants in RPIA, that encodes ribose 5-phosphate isomerase, an enzyme in the pentose phosphate pathway. Till date, only three individuals with ribose 5-phosphate isomerase deficiency have been described in literature. We report on a subject with RPIA associated progressive leukoencephalopathy with elevated urine arabitol and ribitol levels and a novel missense variant c.770T > C p.(Ile257Thr) in exon 8 of RPIA. We also compare the phenotypes of all the four subjects. Our report confirms the phenotype and the genetic cause of this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parneet Kaur
- Department of Medical Genetics, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
| | - Mirjam M C Wamelink
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Metabolic Laboratory, Amsterdam Neuroscience, De Boelelaan, 1117, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Marjo S van der Knaap
- Pediatric Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Neuroscience, The Netherlands; Department of Functional Genomics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Katta Mohan Girisha
- Department of Medical Genetics, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
| | - Anju Shukla
- Department of Medical Genetics, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India.
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