"Like a bird in a cage": Vietnamese women survivors talk about domestic violence

Socioeconomic Inequalities in Intimate Partner Violence: Evidence from Vietnam

Although socioeconomic inequality has been identified as a significant factor for violence against women, the connection between these two variables has not been widely recognized and addressed in many countries. This study aims to quantify the degree of socioeconomic inequalities in intimate partner violence (IPV) in Vietnam and investigate the contribution of each determinant factor that contributes to the observed inequality. We utilized the Vietnamese National Survey on Domestic Violence against Women (N = 4,019) for the analysis. Household wealth was used as a proxy for socioeconomic status. We used a concentration index to quantify the degree of socioeconomic inequality in emotional, physical, or sexual violence and a combination of these three types of violence. We further decomposed the concentration index to identify the contribution of each determinant to the observed inequality in IPV. We found that the prevalence of IPV was significantly concentrated among the worse-off across all types of IPV and that disparities in husband's occupation (48%), women's education (39%), husband's education (38%), and class (34%) were the primary factors contributing to increased inequalities in IPV. Our results indicated that higher education and engagement in skilled jobs were highly concentrated among the better-off, creating unequal distribution of these variables across wealth. Policy could mitigate the inequality in IPV by expanding women's access to education and economic opportunities. However, interventions should target both men and women and within couples because husband's characteristics also play an important role in explaining socioeconomic inequalities in IPV.

Intimate Partner Violence and Barriers to Help-Seeking Among Black, Asian, Minority Ethnic and Immigrant Women: A Qualitative Metasynthesis of Global Research

It is well known that victims of intimate partner violence experience numerous barriers to leaving abusive relationships. For ethnic minority and immigrant women these barriers are significantly exacerbated. This metasynthesis explored barriers to help-seeking as experienced by Black, Asian, minority ethnic and immigrant women with experience of intimate partner violence. A review of worldwide literature published in English in peer-reviewed journals on this topic from 2000 to July 2020 produced 2597 relevant articles. After removing duplicates and applying the exclusion criteria, a total of 47 articles were selected for inclusion in the review. The synthesis found that these women faced additional barriers as a result of institutional racism, immigration laws, culture and religion, and issues of cultural competence, and lack of diversity within frontline services. Such barriers, from a range of formal and informal resources, services and other mechanisms of support, served to exacerbate feelings of fear, threat, isolation and powerlessness. The barriers were also further weaponised by perpetrators in order to extend their reign of terror and control. As a result, women were caught in a double-bind - stay in an abusive relationship or face further threats and consequences if they attempted to leave. Whilst our search criteria focused on barriers to help-seeking, many of the papers included in our synthesis also explored facilitators to help-seeking, which are included in our findings and overwhelmingly relate to informal support from females.

The Psychosocial Impacts of Intimate Partner Violence against Women in LMIC Contexts: Toward a Holistic Approach

Work on the mental health impacts of intimate partner violence in low-and middle-income countries has focused primarily on clinical disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and substance abuse. This paper analyzes how non-clinical, psychosocial impacts from everyday stressors, particularly economic hardships and concern over one's children, cause extensive suffering and damage women survivors' well-being, influencing the development and expression of clinical disorders. Using a social ecological framework, the paper analyzes how psychosocial impacts arise at multiple levels, including societal levels where social norms often devalue women and privilege men, and how the stressor accumulation increases the harm caused by intimate partner violence (IPV) against women (IPVAW). Drawing on survivors' narratives and studies from diverse low and middle income country (LMIC) settings, including armed conflict and natural disaster settings, the paper underscores the importance of understanding both clinical impacts and the non-clinical, psychosocial impacts, which interact with and complement one another. Recognizing the interplay also between IPVAW and other forms of violence against girls and women, the paper calls for a more comprehensive approach to understanding and addressing the impacts of IPVAW. Recognizing the enormous variety within and across countries that are considered to be LMIC settings, the paper cautions against universalized approaches to understanding the effects of IPVAW and helping to support survivors.

Divorce and Domestic Violence Among Syrian Refugees in Germany

In recent literature, there are no academic studies on divorce and domestic violence among Syrian refugees in Germany. To contribute to filling this gap, the current study addresses the question: What are the main causes of divorce and domestic violence among Syrian refugees in Germany, and how are these two phenomena interrelated? The present study is based on 14 qualitative interviews with divorced Syrian refugee men and women in Germany, all of them are Muslim with different economic backgrounds from urban and rural areas in Syria and got divorced shortly after their arrival to Germany. The data were analyzed and coded following Mayring's guidelines for content analysis. The findings suggest that domestic violence results from conflicts of interest in marriage and divorce between Syrian refugee men and women. The present study uses the economic theory of marriage and divorce by Cary Becker to show how Syrian refugee women's "gains" of divorce in Germany exceed the "gains" of remaining married and how that leads them to divorce their husbands. In contrast, divorce is a heavy loss for Syrian refugee men. In addition, it shows how this conflict of interest results in domestic violence, by which the men resist their wives' eagerness to divorce and interpret the marital relationship according to Sharia law and Arabic traditions in order to keep their old patriarchal authority. However, this interpretation is inapplicable and criminalized by the German family legislation, and unwanted by their wives. The findings, through the example of Syrian refugees in Germany, imply that the causes of divorce and domestic violence among refugees in some regards are unique in comparison with natives and migrants. That means that we need more studies on this topic in different socio-cultural contexts.

Encouraging Asian Immigrant Women to Disclose Intimate Partner Violence in Primary Care Settings

Risks of intimate partner violence (IPV) often are higher among immigrant women, due to dependency, language barriers, deportation fears, cultural beliefs, and limited access to services. In the United States, Asian immigrant women experiencing IPV often are reluctant to disclose abuse. Viewing videos that depict IPV survivors who have successfully obtained help might encourage disclosure. After conducting formative research, we created brief videos in four Asian languages (Korean, Mandarin Chinese, Thai, and Vietnamese) for use in primary care clinic consultation rooms. We then conducted in-depth interviews with 60 Asian immigrant women in California to get their perspectives on how helpful the videos might be in achieving disclosure. Most participants believed the videos would promote disclosure in clinics, although those who had been abused seemed more skeptical. Many had stereotyped views of victims, who they felt needed to be emotive to be credible. Videos should be upbeat, highlighting the positive outcomes of escaping violence and showing clearly each step of the process. Various types of IPV should be described, so that women understand the violence is not exclusively physical. Victims would need reassurance that they will not be arrested, deported, or forced to leave their abusers. Discussing the benefits of escaping violence to children could be influential. Victims also must be convinced that providers are trustworthy, confidential, and want to help. To assist immigrant populations to disclose IPV to a health provider, videos need to be culturally relevant, explain various types of violence, allay fears, and show clear processes and benefits.

Patterns of Surveillance, Control, and Abuse Among a Diverse Sample of Intimate Partner Abuse Survivors

Using a mixed-methods design, the present study examined intimate partner surveillance among a diverse sample of intimate partner abuse (IPA) survivors (n = 246), including women of Mexican (n = 83), Korean (n = 50), Vietnamese (n = 49), and European descent (n = 64). Most survivors (57%) described surveillance in either survey or interview; inductive thematic analysis revealed seven forms of surveillance. Finally, two-step cluster analysis identified two patterns of victimization most clearly differentiated by surveillance, but ethnic group differences in rates and patterns of abuse did not emerge. Implications for both clinicians and researchers are discussed.

Exploring the Needs and Lived Experiences of Racial and Ethnic Minority Domestic Violence Survivors Through Community-Based Participatory Research: A Systematic Review

Community-based participatory research (CBPR) is a methodological approach where community-academic teams build equitable relationships throughout the research process. In the domestic violence (DV) field, CBPR may be particularly important when conducting research with racial and ethnic minority DV survivors, as this group faces concurrent oppressions that inform their lived experiences. To our knowledge, no systematic review has synthesized articles using a CBPR approach to explore the needs and lived experiences of racial and ethnic minority DV survivors. Using PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic review of the literature, retrieving articles that used a CBPR approach to understand the needs and/or lived experiences of female racial and ethnic minority DV survivors residing in the United States. Articles were identified from peer-reviewed databases, bibliographies, and experts. Thirteen of the 185 articles assessed for eligibility were included. Articles focused on a variety of racial and ethnic minority groups, the majority identifying as African American or Latina. Collaboration occurred in multiple ways, primarily through equitable decision-making and building team members' strengths. Several needs and lived experiences emerged including gender identity and patriarchal attitudes, racism and discrimination, the immigrant experience informing DV, poverty, shame and stigma, and the need for social support. This is the first systematic review of articles using a CBPR approach to explore the needs and lived experiences of racial and ethnic minority survivors. Implications include promoting community-based dissemination, conducting quantitative studies with larger sample sizes of DV survivors, and encouraging culturally specific services that address DV survivors' intersectional needs.

Assessing Organizational Cultural Responsiveness among Refugee-Servicing Domestic Violence Agencies

Refugee community members who have experienced domestic violence in the U.S. face complex challenges in seeking help which may ultimately impact their ability to leave violent relationships. When domestic violence organizations are not prepared to serve them in culturally responsive ways, these challenges are exacerbated. This study surveyed 70 executive directors of domestic violence agencies in U.S. resettlement cities about the extent to which their organization’s practices reflected cultural responsiveness in serving refugee populations. The results showed promising indicators of organizational cultural responsiveness but uncovered numerous areas for growth. In particular, the study results underscore the need for organizations to improve their language supports and take active steps to outreach to, hire, and engage refugee communities in order to better serve them. This paper makes recommendations for how DV agencies can be more culturally responsive as they support refugee individuals who are seeking safety from violent relationships.

Factor Structure for Chronic Stress Before and During Pregnancy by Racial/Ethnic Group

This study aimed to explore race/ethnicity-specific dimensionalities of chronic stress before and during pregnancy for non-Hispanic (N-H) White, N-H Black, Hispanic, and Asian women in the United States. This study analyzed the data among 6,850 women from the New York City and Washington State Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (2004-2007) linked with birth certificates. Separate exploratory factor analysis was conducted by race/ethnicity using a maximum-likelihood extraction method with 26 chronic stress items before and during pregnancy. Correlations and internal consistency reliabilities among items and latent factors determined race/ethnicity-specific factor structures of chronic stress. Chronic stress was race/ethnicity-distinctive and multidimensional with low correlations among the factors ( r = .07-.28, p < .05). Despite financial hardship, perceived isolation, and physical violence underlying chronic stress among the racial/ethnic groups, intergroup variations existed under each group's cultural or sociopolitical contexts. This study could help develop targeted strategies to intervene with women's chronic stressors before childbirth.

Correlates of Domestic Violence Victimization Among North Korean Refugee Women in South Korea

Although many North Korean (NK) refugee women are victims of domestic violence (DV) in North Korea, face sexual exploitation during migration, and remain at risk of DV while adapting to life in South Korea, there is no empirical evidence about risk factors for DV in this population. To fill this gap, this study examined whether gender role beliefs, child abuse history, and sociocultural adaptation were associated with past-year physical, emotional, sexual, and economic abuse, and whether they were associated with multiple forms of abuse. We also explored whether these associations were similar or different across different types of DV among NK refugee women. A sample of 180 ever-married NK refugee women in South Korea from the 2010 National Survey on Family Violence was used for analysis. Physical abuse was associated with more traditional gender role beliefs; emotional abuse and multiple forms of abuse were associated with lower levels of sociocultural adaptation; and sexual and economic abuse were associated with an increased likelihood of childhood abuse and poor sociocultural adaptation. Our study findings underscore the importance of assisting NK refugee women to be better adapted to the new culture in a practical way, because better sociocultural adaptation might protect them from experiencing various types of abuse. At the same time, findings of this study highlight the need for empowering NK refugee women who report physical abuse by educating their rights and altering their traditional beliefs of gender roles, and screening of childhood abuse and providing culturally sensitive psychotherapy to those who report sexual or economic abuse. Moreover, we suggest future studies to examine correlates of different forms of abuse separately because they can inform culturally tailored interventions for abused NK refugee women. To prevent further victimization, educational programs should be provided to NK refugee women at an early stage of resettlement in South Korea.

Intimate partner violence and physical health outcomes among Southeast Asian American women

Although intimate partner violence is prevalent among Southeast Asian American women, little is known about the associations between the experience of intimate partner violence and negative health outcomes in this population. Resnick et al. proposed a model explaining the development of health problems following violent assault. This article assesses the applicability of Resnick et al.'s model to Southeast Asian American women who have experienced intimate partner violence by reviewing cultural, historical, and social factors in this population. Our review indicates that the applicability of Resnick et al.'s model to Southeast Asian American women is mixed, with some components of the model fitting well with this population and others requiring a more nuanced and complex perspective. Future studies should take into consideration cultural, historical, and social factors.

Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Zimbabwe

The present study examines intimate partner violence (IPV) reported by a sample of women in Zimbabwe to explore factors associated with the problem. Findings from the study indicate an important role of gender relationships in violence against women. The effects of gender inequalities on the likelihood of IPV vary with types of violence, but husband's patriarchal behaviors increase the likelihood of all forms of violence. The study suggests the importance of improving gender equality through public education on gender relationships, increasing women's education and economic opportunities, and eliminating customary laws that sustain gender inequality as necessary steps to combat IPV against women in Zimbabwe.

"El Silencio": Conceptualizations of Latina Immigrant Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence in the Midwest of the United States

This critical ethnography explored the experiences of battered, immigrant, Spanish-speaking Latinas in the Midwest of the United States. It relied on Chicana and Mujerista frameworks for understanding help-seeking. Although there has been progress in documenting intimate partner violence in the United States, there is less knowledge concerning this issue with undocumented Latinas. The methodology implemented two stages: (a) observations and informal interviews and (b) formal interviews. The findings reveal multiple sides of "el silencio." Maintaining the silence, or breaking it, is surrounded by exchanges with the internal voice parallel to personal experiences with violence at different points in life. It is also affected by cultural expectations in home and host country.

"I Didn't Know Whether I Was Right or Wrong or Just Bewildered": Ambiguity, Responsibility, and Silencing Women's Talk of Men's Domestic Violence

Little has been written about the impact on women of the man's obscuring and deflecting of responsibility when domestic violence is used by him against her. Women's advocates report that women who seek shelter from domestic violence assume blame for the violence and struggle to shift from this position of responsibility. Women are likely to be silenced if they assume responsibility and are less likely to come forward. In this study, we use discourse analysis to describe the ambiguities around responsibility that worked to silence 20 women and the sociocultural influences that supported this ambiguity. We discuss the implications for prevention.

The Significant Frequency and Impact of Stealth (Nonviolent) Gender-Based Abuse Among College Women

The prevalence, incidence, and impact of the gender-based abuse (GBA) of college women have been increasingly documented since the 1980s, with growing precision in the measurements and expanding identification of tactics. Although there is an obvious class bias in focusing on college women (compared to women of similar ages not attending college), it is important to address GBA among this population as they are at serious risk of sexual abuse (particularly incapacitated rape), intimate partner abuse (IPA), and stalking. This article addresses the stealth nature of the nonviolent GBAs of college women and how these abuses frequently operate under the radar of acknowledgment by society, the abusers, campus officials, the criminal legal system, and sometimes, the survivors.

Victims' barriers to discussing domestic violence in clinical consultations: a qualitative enquiry

Victims of domestic violence frequently attend health care facilities. In many cases, their abusive experience is neither disclosed nor discussed during clinical consultations. This study examined the barriers faced by women when discussing abuse with health care providers, specifically in cases involving Malaysian women with a history of domestic violence. A qualitative study using in-depth interviews was conducted with 10 women with a history of domestic violence residing at a shelter. Purposive sampling was conducted until data saturation. Using the grounded theory approach of analysis, themes that emerged from these interviews were then further analyzed to examine the barriers faced by these women. Women who experienced domestic violence faced multiple barriers while discussing their accounts of abuse with others. Values placed on the privacy of domestic violence; upholding the traditional gender roles; preserving the family unity; minimizing the abuse, the feeling of shame, self-blame; and fearing their abuser generally create internal barriers when discussing their encounters of abuse with health care providers. The perceived unknown role of health care professionals when dealing with patients experiencing domestic violence as well as the previous negative experiences in clinical consultations acted as external barriers for discussing abuse with health care providers. Women with domestic violence experiences faced internal and external barriers to discussing their abuse during clinical consultations. Physicians and health care providers must consider domestic violence in consultations with female patients. A good doctor-patient relationship that encompasses empathy, confidence, trust, support, assurance, confidentiality, and guidance can help patients with abusive backgrounds overcome these barriers, leading to the disclosure and discussion of their abusive encounters. Proper education, guidelines, and support for health care providers are required to help them assist women with histories of domestic violence.

Marriage migration, patriarchal bargains, and wife abuse: a study of South Asian women

This article contributes to the literature on wife abuse by using the patriarchal bargaining framework, which highlights the issue of agency as women strive to achieve their goals within the constraints of family and culture. Study participants were recent South Asian immigrants to the United States. Narrative analysis revealed that patriarchal constraints in natal families, culture, and expectations of benefits gained through marriage influenced many of the women to migrate for marriage. When husbands enforced extreme patriarchy with abuse, women's personal efforts to contain abuse were largely ineffective. However, advocacy agency interventions did help some women break out of extreme patriarchy.

Help-Seeking Behaviors of South Asian Women Experiencing Domestic Violence in the United States

This study used survey methodology and logistic regression analysis to examine sociocultural factors (isolation, social support, acculturation, and patriarchy) associated with informal and formal help seeking among a community sample of 57 female domestic violence victims of South Asian origin residing in the United States. Of them, 35 (61%) reported seeking some type of help in the past year. Most of the 35 (60%) sought informal help. Participants who were more isolated from their spouse/partner and were not living with children were more likely to seek help. Most women said they sought help from others as a last option. Participants rated the effectiveness of many informal and formal sources of help as “moderately” to “very” helpful. The findings can be used to develop culturally specific intervention programs/services for South Asian women victims of domestic violence.

" . . . There is no war here; it is only the relationship that makes us scared": factors having an impact on domestic violence in Liberian refugee communities in South Australia

This article explores the factors that have an impact on domestic violence in African refugee communities, with specific reference to the Liberian community in South Australia. Seventeen focus group discussions were undertaken with women participants of the Liberian Women's Gathering. The nested ecological model (Dutton, 2001; Heise, 1998) is used to conceptualize the factors having an impact on domestic violence. The findings suggest that disruption to traditional gender roles has an impact on domestic violence at the cultural, socioeconomic, familial, and individual levels and that women's experience of domestic violence must be understood in relation to the acute and prolonged stressors of war, loss, and displacement.

Immigrant and nonimmigrant women: factors that predict leaving an abusive relationship

This research used logistic regression to test components of Choice and Lamke's (1997) two-part decision-making model and Hamby's (2008) holistic risk assessment as predictors of the decision to separate from an abusive partner, comparing significant predictors for immigrant (n = 497) and nonimmigrant (n = 808) women. Findings demonstrated that immigrant women reported higher levels of perceived risks/barriers to leaving, provided some support for the use of a holistic risk assessment in understanding women's decisions to leave, and demonstrated that immigrant and nonimmigrant women have both similarities and differences in the factors that predict leaving. Clinical and policy implications are addressed.

Mexican immigrant survivors of intimate partner violence: conceptualization and descriptions of abuse

This phenomenological qualitative study examines intimate partner violence (IPV) experienced by a sample of 29 Mexican immigrant women residing in New York and St. Louis. The findings reveal important insights about culturally specific abuse tactics employed by batterers and the forms of abuse that are experienced as most hurtful to the survivors. Ten different abusive tactics emerged: verbal, economic, physical, sexual, and extended family abuse, social isolation, physical abuse of children, stalking and monitoring, stolen bride, and sex trafficking. Cultural values and expectations appear to be inextricably linked to how the participants characterized the severity of each of the abusive tactics as evidenced by which abusive behaviors the participants found most hurtful. The findings will help service providers have a better understanding of the role cultural context plays in the IPV experiences of Mexican immigrant women.

An exploratory study on the consequences and contextual factors of intimate partner violence among immigrant and Canadian-born women

OBJECTIVE

To compare immigrant and Canadian-born women on the physical and psychological consequences of intimate partner violence (IPV), as well as examine important sociodemographic, health and social support and network factors that may shape their experiences of abuse.

METHOD

National, population-based, cross-sectional survey conducted in 2009.

PARTICIPANTS

6859 women reported contact with a current or former partner in the previous 5 years, of whom 1480 reported having experienced emotional, financial, physical and/or sexual IPV. Of these women, 218 (15%) were immigrants and 1262 (85%) were Canadian-born.

RESULTS

Immigrant women were less likely than Canadian-born women to report having experienced emotional abuse (15.3% vs 18.2%, p=0.04) and physical and/or sexual violence (5.1% vs 6.9%, p=0.04) from a current or former partner. There were no differences between immigrant and Canadian-born women in the physical and psychological consequences of physical and/or sexual IPV. However, compared with Canadian-born women, immigrant women reported lower levels of trust towards their neighbours (50.7% vs 41.5%, p=0.04) and people they work or go to school with (38.6% vs 27.5%, p=0.02), and were more likely to report having experienced discrimination based on ethnicity or culture (18.8% vs 6.8%, p<0.0001), race or skin colour (p=0.003) and language (10.1% vs 3.2%, p<0.0001). Immigrant women were less likely than Canadian-born women to report activity limitations (p=0.01) and medication use for sleep problems (14.1% vs 20.6%, p=0.05) and depression (11.5% vs 17.6%, p=0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our exploratory study revealed no differences between immigrant and Canadian-born women in the physical and psychological consequences of IPV. Abused immigrant women's lower levels of trust for certain individuals and experiences of discrimination may have important implications for seeking help for IPV and underscores the need for IPV-related intervention and prevention services that are culturally sensitive and appropriate.

Narrative possibilities: poor women of color and the complexities of intimate partner violence

This article shows how a narrative methodological approach is particularly suited to examining the dynamics of intimate partner violence, especially among poor women of color in South Africa. We show how a narrative approach allowed women to represent their experiences of violence according to their own frames of meaning, examining the complexities of abuse as it is informed by sociocultural factors of gender, poverty, and deprivation. In particular, we show how a narrative approach departs from other qualitative work by enabling women to construct particular forms of identity, thereby giving them agency in authoring their own stories of violence.

Silent endurance and profound loneliness: socioemotional suffering in African Americans living with HIV in the rural south

We explored how community responses to HIV contribute to distress in African Americans living with HIV in the rural South of the United States. We listened to the voices of community members through focus groups and African Americans with HIV through interviews. Community avoidance of HIV, negative views of HIV, and discriminatory behavior powerfully affected the distress of people living with HIV (PLWH). Ongoing distress, coupled with limited support, led to a life in which many PLWH endured their pain in silence and experienced profound loneliness. We conceptualized their experiences as socioemotional suffering--the hidden emotional burden and inner distress of not only living with HIV, a complex serious illness, but also with the societal attitudes and behaviors that are imposed on the illness and on PLWH. To improve the quality of life and health of PLWH, we cannot focus solely on the individual, but must also focus on the local community and society as a whole.

Worldwide violence against women legislation: an equity approach

OBJECTIVES

To describe the recommendations and interventions addressing violence against women (VAW) in vulnerable women (disabled, pregnant, ethnic minority, immigrant and older women) in key documents and laws enacted in different countries.

METHODS

Content analysis of key documents for the development of VAW policies and laws: The United Nations Handbook for Legislation on Violence Against Women Advance Version, the Model of Laws and Policies on Intrafamiliar Violence Against Women of the Pan-American Health Organization and Recommendation No. R(2002)5 of the Committee of Ministers of the European Council. The content of the 62 VAW laws was also analyzed.

RESULTS

Key documents demonstrate the importance of eliminating any obstacle facing disabled, pregnant, immigrant, ethnic minority or older women when accessing VAW services. Only 12 laws mention one or more of these groups of vulnerable women. Pregnant, disabled and ethnic minority women are the groups most often mentioned. In these laws, references to punitive measures, action plans and specific strategies to guarantee access to VAW resources are the most common interventions.

CONCLUSION

Decisive interventions addressing the specific needs of disabled, pregnant, immigrant, ethnic minority and older women are needed in order to achieve a broader equity approach in VAW legislation.

Responses to intimate partner violence in Kakuma refugee camp: refugee interactions with agency systems

Intimate partner violence (IPV) has been recognised as a significant problem amongst forcibly displaced communities, and great progress has been made by the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) in responding to IPV and other forms of sexual and gender based violence. However, they have not always effectively engaged refugee communities in these activities, with potentially negative consequences for the health and protection of women. This study was conducted in Kakuma refugee camp, north-west Kenya. Eighteen focus group discussions were conducted with 157 refugees from various nationalities, including Sudanese, Somali, Ethiopian, and Congolese. They focused on the nature and consequences of IPV in Kakuma. The aim of this paper is to explore how refugees in Kakuma talk about the ways that IPV is dealt with, focusing particularly on the ways that community responses are said to interact with formal response systems established by UNHCR and its implementing partners. Refugees talked about using a 'hierarchy of responses' to IPV, with only particularly serious or intransigent cases reaching UNHCR or its implementing agencies. Some male refugees described being mistrustful of agency responses, because agencies were believed to favour women and to prioritise protecting the woman at all costs, even if that means separating her from the family. Whilst community responses to IPV might often be appropriate and helpful, the findings of the current study suggest that in Kakuma they do not necessarily result in the protection of women. Yet women in Kakuma are reported to be reluctant to report their cases to UNHCR and its implementing agencies. A more effective protection response from UNHCR might involve closer co-operation with individuals and structures within the refugee communities to develop a co-ordinated response to IPV.

The Functions of Gender Role Traditionality, Ambivalent Sexism, Injury, and Frequency of Assault on Domestic Violence Perception

This study examined the mediating influence of gender-role traditionality (GRT), ambivalent sexism, and victim injury and frequency of assault on domestic violence (DV) perception differences between Japanese and American college students. As predicted, Japanese tended to minimize, blame, and excuse DV more than did Americans, and these national differences were mediated by GRT. Participants viewed the DV incident more seriously when the victim presented injury or when the incident had occurred frequently. Those high in benevolent and hostile sexism were more likely to minimize DV, whereas those high only in benevolent sexism were more likely to blame the victim.

Intimate partner violence among Asian immigrant communities: health/mental health consequences, help-seeking behaviors, and service utilization

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious epidemic among Asian immigrant communities. Yet little is known about the scope, nature, and related contextual, cultural, and social factors of IPV among this population. In particular, the lack of research has been evident in examining health and mental health outcomes of IPV and service utilization, revealing notable gaps in health disparities which result in a failure to provide relevant services and law enforcement protection for battered Asian immigrant women. This article examines critically the growing body of literature on IPV among Asian immigrant populations in several areas: (a) the context of IPV: cultural, social, and individual/familial, (b) prevalence of IPV, (c) physical health and increased risk for sexually transmitted disease and HIV/AIDS, (d) mental health consequences and substance use, (e) social support and help-seeking behaviors, and (f) barriers to service utilization. Future directions for practice, policy, and research are discussed.

Attitudes of Jordanian society toward wife abuse

The authors conducted an exploratory study among a convenience sample of 260 Jordanian men and women, using self-administered open and closed questions to examine the participants' approach toward wife abuse. In general, there was high awareness of wife abuse and the different types of abuse (mainly physical and psychological), a general tendency to oppose wife abuse, a tendency to blame the victim for abuse, and a lesser tendency to blame the abuse on the husband, marital problems, as well as familial and societal conditions. There was also a strong tendency to consider wife abuse a personal and familial issue rather than a social and legal problem. Therefore, the preferred method for coping with wife abuse and violence was the expectation that the abused wife should change her behavior and assume responsibility to change her husband followed by resorting to informal agents (family or community or religious figures). Less preferred coping methods included confronting the husband and expressing desire to break up or separate and resorting to formal agents (social welfare programs, counseling, legal system), as a last resort in cases of repeated abuse and severe physical violence. The implications of these findings for future research, interventions, and policy formulation are discussed.

Cultural beliefs and domestic violence

The role of cultural beliefs in domestic violence is examined within the context of the identification of more culturally viable options for women who are operating within diverse cultural frameworks and experiencing domestic violence worldwide. Domestic violence advocacy efforts are encouraged to incorporate more culturally informed strategies that complement the worldviews and cultural traditions of women from different backgrounds. The need for a more culturally sensitive definition of domestic violence that is inclusive of a range of domestic violence across cultures and also enhances communication among victims is identified. Points of relevant cultural reference are discussed and a cultural cost-benefit analysis is recommended for culturally relevant domestic violence research and program implementation.

Egalitarian sex role attitudes among Japanese human service professionals: confirmatory factor analytic study

The psychometric properties of the short form of the Scale of Egalitarian Sex Role Attitudes (SESRA-S) were studied among human service professionals. An exploratory factor analysis yielded two factors interpreted as reflecting women's rights (e.g. women at home and men at work [a reverse item]) and women's independence (e.g. working outside is equally important for women [a non-reverse item]), respectively. Confirmatory factor analysis showed a good fit. Impact of participant age, sex, residential area, and type of profession on sex role egalitarianism were examined by four-way layout anova. Men in rural areas had the lowest score in the women's rights subscale and psychiatrists in rural areas had the lowest score in the women's independence subscale.