Effect of Picroliv on cadmium-induced hepatic and renal damage in the rat

Pharmacological and Clinical Efficacy of Picrorhiza kurroa and Its Secondary Metabolites: A Comprehensive Review

Traditional remedies for the treatment of various ailments are gaining popularity. Traditionally, one of the most valuable therapeutic herbs has been Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. Traditional and folk uses of P. kurroa include chronic constipation, skin-related problems, burning sensation, chronic reoccurring fever, jaundice, heart problems, breathing, digestion, allergy, tuberculosis, blood-related problems, prediabetes and obesity, laxative, cholagogue, and liver stimulatory. Phytoconstituents such as glycosides, alkaloids, cucurbitacins, iridoids, phenolics, and terpenes in P. kurroa have shown promising pharmacological potential. In order to uncover novel compounds that may cure chronic illnesses, such as cardiovascular, diabetes, cancer, respiratory, and hepatoprotective diseases, the screening of P. kurroa is essential. This study comprehensively evaluated the ethnopharmacological efficacy, phytochemistry, pharmacological activity, dose, and toxicity of P. kurroa. This review provides comprehensive insights into this traditional medication for future research and therapeutic application. The purpose of this review article was to determine the pharmacological effects of P. kurroa on a variety of disorders. P. kurroa may be a natural alternative to the standard treatment for eradicating newly evolving diseases. This study is intended as a resource for future fundamental and clinical investigations.

Cadmium-Induced Kidney Injury: Oxidative Damage as a Unifying Mechanism

Cadmium is a nonessential metal that has heavily polluted the environment due to human activities. It can be absorbed into the human body via the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, and the skin, and can cause chronic damage to the kidneys. The main site where cadmium accumulates and causes damage within the nephrons is the proximal tubule. This accumulation can induce dysfunction of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, leading to electron leakage and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Cadmium may also impair the function of NADPH oxidase, resulting in another source of ROS. These ROS together can cause oxidative damage to DNA, proteins, and lipids, triggering epithelial cell death and a decline in kidney function. In this article, we also reviewed evidence that the antioxidant power of plant extracts, herbal medicines, and pharmacological agents could ameliorate cadmium-induced kidney injury. Finally, a model of cadmium-induced kidney injury, centering on the notion that oxidative damage is a unifying mechanism of cadmium renal toxicity, is also presented. Given that cadmium exposure is inevitable, further studies using animal models are warranted for a detailed understanding of the mechanism underlying cadmium induced ROS production, and for the identification of more therapeutic targets.

Comparative assessment of the effects of meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid and salinomycin on spleen function of cadmium-exposed mice

In this study, we present experimental data on the effects of meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) and tetraethylammonium salt of salinomycinic acid (Sal) on cadmium-induced spleen dysfunction and altered essential metal balance in mice. Sixty-day-old male mice (ICR line) were randomly divided into four groups: untreated control group (Ctrl)-obtained distilled water for 28 days, toxic control group (Cd)-exposed to cadmium acetate dihydrate at average daily dose of 20mg/kg body weight (BW) for 14 days, Cd + DMSA group-obtained cadmium acetate dihydrate as the toxic control group followed by treatment with 20mg/kg BW DMSA for 2 weeks, and Cd + Sal group-mice exposed to cadmium acetate dihydrate at average daily dose of 20mg/kg BW for 2 weeks followed by administration of Sal at an average daily dose of 20mg/kg BW for 2 weeks. The compounds were administered orally via the drinking water of the animals. We found that cadmium exposure caused splenomegaly and reduced the hemoglobin and hematocrit levels and total red blood cell count compared with untreated controls. Cadmium intoxication of mice induced accumulation of the toxic metal ion in the blood and spleen. Alterations in the endogenous levels of calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe) in the spleen of cadmium-exposed mice compared with those in untreated controls were observed. Treatment of cadmium-exposed mice with DMSA or Sal recovered the spleen weight and hematological parameters to normal control values, decreased cadmium concentration in the blood and spleen, and improved splenic architecture. The results prove that Sal is a potential antidote for treatment of Cd-induced spleen dysfunction.

Protective effect of tetrahydrobiopterin on hepatic and renal damage after acute cadmium exposure in male rats

Cadmium (Cd) has been recognized as one of the most important environmental and industrial pollutants. This study investigated the impact of acute exposure to Cd on oxidative stress and the inflammatory marker interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the plasma of rats and the histological picture of liver and kidney, as well as to examine the potential protective effect of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4).

METHODS

Rats were divided into control group, Cd group that received a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) dose of 4 mg/kg b.w. of CdCl2 and BH4+ Cd group that received a single dose of BH4 (20 mg/kg, i.p.) and subsequently exposed to a single dose of Cd 24 h after the BH4 treatment.

RESULTS

Cd increased the plasma levels of hepatic enzymes (ALT and AST), urea, creatinine, malondialdehyde (MDA), and IL-6 and decreased the superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Also, it induced histopathological alterations in the liver with severe degeneration, especially in centrilobular zones. Renal tubular epithelium showed vacuolated cytoplasm and dense nuclei. VEGF expression was mild. Ultrastuctural changes were seen in some renal tubules. The nuclei appeared distorted with electron dense chromatin. Mitochondria with destructed cristae were observed. BH4 pretreatment had protective effects, since it significantly reduced the levels of IL-6 and ameliorated the alteration in oxidative status biomarkers induced by Cd. Improvement of histopathological alterations was observed in Cd-groups. The nuclei were vesicular euchromatic, intact mitochondria and normal appearance of the filtration membrane. Moderate expression of VEGF was noted.

CONCLUSION

This study has provided clear evidence for the protective efficacy of BH4 against experimental Cd toxicity.

Engineered nanoparticles of titanium dioxide (TIO2): Uptake and biological effects in a sea bass cell line

With the rapid development of nanotechnology there has been a corresponding increase in the application of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂-NPs) in various consumer and industrial products, consequently their potential health hazards and environmental effects are considered an aspect of great concern. In the present study, in order to assess the impact of TiO₂-NPs in the marine environment, the biological effects of TiO₂-NPs on a sea bass cell line (DLEC) were investigated. Cells were exposed for 24 h to different concentrations of TiO₂-NPs (1, 8, 40, 200 and 1000 μg/ml) or co-exposed with CdCl₂ (Cd). The effects of UV light irradiation were also investigated in cells treated with TiO₂-NPs and/or Cd. The internalization of TiO₂-NPs and the morphological cell modifications induced by the treatments were examined by transmission and scanning electron microscopy, this latter coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) for particle element detection. In addition, the effects of controlled exposures were studied evaluating the cytotoxicity, the DNA damage and the expression of inflammatory genes. Our study indicates that TiO₂-NPs were localized on the cell surface mainly as agglomerates revealed by EDS analysis and that they were uptaken by the cells inducing morphological changes. Photoactivation of TiO₂-NPs and/or co-exposure with Cd affects ATP levels and it contributes to induce acute cellular toxicity in DLEC cells dependent on Ti concentration. The inflammatory potential and the DNA damage, this latter displayed through a caspase-3 independent apoptotic process, were also demonstrated. Overall our data suggest that the interaction of TiO₂-NPs with marine water contaminants, such as cadmium, and the UV irradiation, may be an additional threat to marine organisms.

Zebrafish larva as a reliable model for in vivo assessment of membrane remodeling involvement in the hepatotoxicity of chemical agents

The easy-to-use in vivo model, zebrafish larva, is being increasingly used to screen chemical-induced hepatotoxicity, with a good predictivity for various mechanisms of liver injury. However, nothing is known about its applicability in exploring the mechanism called membrane remodeling, depicted as changes in membrane fluidity or lipid raft properties. The aim of this study was, therefore, to substantiate the zebrafish larva as a suitable in vivo model in this context. Ethanol was chosen as a prototype toxicant because it is largely described, both in hepatocyte cultures and in rodents, as capable of inducing a membrane remodeling leading to hepatocyte death and liver injury. The zebrafish larva model was demonstrated to be fully relevant as membrane remodeling was maintained even after a 1-week exposure without any adaptation as usually reported in rodents and hepatocyte cultures. It was also proven to exhibit a high sensitivity as it discriminated various levels of cytotoxicity depending on the extent of changes in membrane remodeling. In this context, its sensitivity appeared higher than that of WIF-B9 hepatic cells, which is suited for analyzing this kind of hepatotoxicity. Finally, the protection afforded by a membrane stabilizer, ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), or by a lipid raft disrupter, pravastatin, definitely validated zebrafish larva as a reliable model to quickly assess membrane remodeling involvement in chemical-induced hepatotoxicity. In conclusion, this model, compatible with a high throughput screening, might be adapted to seek hepatotoxicants via membrane remodeling, and also drugs targeting membrane features to propose new preventive or therapeutic strategies in chemical-induced liver diseases. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Modulation of cytokines and chemokines expression by NAC in cadmium chloride treated human lung cells

Cadmium (Cd), is one of the most hazardous metals found in the environment. Cd exposure through inhalation has been linked to various diseases in lungs. It was shown that Cd induces proinflammatory cytokines through oxidative stress mechanism. In this report, we studied the immunomodulatory effect of a well known antioxidant, N-acetylcysteine (NAC) on cadmium chloride (CdCl2 ) treated human lung A549 cells through human cytokine array 6. The lung cells were treated with 0 or 75 µM CdCl2 alone, 2.5 mM NAC alone, or co-treated with 2.5 mM NAC and 75 µM CdCl2 for 24 h. The viability of cells was measured by crystal violet dye. The array results were validated by human IL-1alpha enzyme- linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. The viability of the 75 µM CdCl2 alone treated cells was decreased to 44.5%, while the viability of the co-treated cells with 2.5 mM NAC was increased to 84.1% in comparison with untreated cells. In the cell lysate of CdCl2 alone treated cells, 19 and 8 cytokines were up and down-regulated, while in the medium 15 and 3 cytokines were up and downregulated in comparison with the untreated cells. In the co-treated cells, all these cytokines expression was modulated by the NAC treatment. The IL-1α ELISA result showed the same pattern of cytokine expression as the cytokine array. This study clearly showed the modulatory effect of NAC on cytokines and chemokines expression in CdCl2- treated cells and suggests the use of NAC as protective agent against cadmium toxicity. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 31: 1612-1619, 2016.

Mitigative action of monoisoamyl-2,3-dimercaptosuccinate (MiADMS) against cadmium-induced damage in cultured rat normal liver cells

Cadmium is non-essential, carcinogenic and multitarget pollutant in the environment. Monoisoamyl-2,3-dimercaptosuccinate (MiADMS) is an ester of dimercaptosuccinic acid that acts as an antioxidant and chelator. Therefore, the mitigative action of MiADMS on viability, morphology, antioxidative enzymes and cell cycle were studied on rat liver cells treated with cadmium chloride (CdCl2). The cells were treated with 150 μM CdCl2 alone or cotreated with 300 μM MiADMS (concurrently, 2 h or 4 h post-CdCl2 treatment) for 24 h. The viability of cells treated with CdCl2 alone was decreased in comparison to the control cells. Cotreatment with MiADMS resulted in an increase in cell viability in comparison to the CdCl2 alone treated cells. The CdCl2 treatment altered the morphological shape of the cells, while cotreatment with MiADMS restored the shape. Antioxidative enzymes activities were decreased in the cells treated with CdCl2 alone, while MiADMS cotreatment resulted in an increase in enzyme activities. The CdCl2 arrested the cells in S phase of the cell cycle. Cotreatment with MiADMS alleviated cell cycle arrest by shifting to G1 phase. These results clearly show the mitigative action of MiADMS on CdCl2 toxicity and may suggest that MiADMS can be used as an antidote against cadmium.

Protective effects of N-acetylcysteine against cadmium-induced damage in cultured rat normal liver cells

In this study, the protective effects of N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a precursor of reduced glutathione, were studied by measuring the viability, the levels of antioxidant enzymes, and by analyzing the cell cycle in cadmium (Cd)-treated rat liver cells. The cells were treated with 150 µM CdCl2 alone or co-treated with 150 µM CdCl2 and 5 mM NAC (2 h pre-, simultaneous or 2 h post-treatment) for 24 h. The viability of the cells treated with 150 µM CdCl2 alone decreased to 40.1%, while that of the cells co-treated with 5 mM NAC (pre-, simultaneous and post-treatment) significantly increased to 83.7, 86.2 and 83.7%, respectively in comparison to the control cells (100%). The catalase enzyme level decreased to undetectable level in the cells treated with CdCl2 alone, while it significantly increased in the co-treated cells (pre-, simultaneous and post-treatment) to 40.1, 34.3 and 13.2%, respectively. In the cells treated with CdCl2 alone, the glutathione peroxidase enzyme level decreased to 78.3%, while it increased in the co-treated cells (pre-, simultaneous, and post-treatment) to 84.5, 83.3 and 87.9%, respectively. The glutathione reductase enzyme level decreased to 56.1% in the cells treated with cadmium alone, but significantly increased in the cells co treated with NAC (pre-, simultaneous and post-treatment) to 79.5, 78.5 and 78.2%, respectively. Cd caused cell cycle arrest at the S and G2/M phases. The co-treatment with NAC inhibited cell cycle arrest by shifting the cells to the G1 phase. These results clearly show the protective effects of NAC against Cd-induced damage in rat liver cells.

Immunomodulatory effect of picroliv on the efficacy of paromomycin and miltefosine in combination in experimental visceral leishmaniasis

Combination therapy for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis has increasingly been advocated as a way to increase treatment efficacy and tolerance, to reduce treatment duration and cost, and to limit the emergence of drug resistance. In the present work, we have adopted a rational approach, which can modulate the immune response to overcome the negative control systems and to boost the positive killing responses. This study was designed to investigate the immunomodulatory effect of picroliv (standardized fraction from the alcoholic extract of root and rhizome of Picrorhiza kurroa) on a combination of paromomycin and miltefosine using Leishmania donovani/hamster model. Picroliv has significantly enhanced antileishmanial efficacy and lymphocyte proliferation when given in combination with paromomycin and miltefosine. Increased toxic oxygen metabolite generation and phagocytosis were also witnessed. Present study thus establishes the possible use of picroliv as adjunct to antileishmanial chemotherapy.

Biochemical changes in urine and plasma of rats in food chain-mediated cadmium toxicity

The present study sets out to assess the toxicity of cadmium (Cd) administered via the food chain. The food chain was mimicked by exposing rats to diet containing milled Cd-exposed catfish as the source of protein. The toxicity of Cd was monitored by the determination of indices of oxidative stress and kidney dysfunction in plasma and urine of the rats after 1- and 3-month exposure periods. The results obtained indicate that Cd exposure in the rats was followed by marked accumulation of the metal in the liver and kidney with time. However, the kidney accumulated more Cd relative to the liver after both exposure periods. The levels of glucose, creatinine and lipid peroxidation were significantly (p < 0.05) increased in both plasma and urine of the rats after 1 month of exposure. Conversely, rats fed the test diet for 3 months had significantly (p < 0.05) decreased level of lipid peroxidation in the plasma and urine. However, the plasma and urine glucose concentrations were restored to levels not significantly (p > 0.05) different from control in rats fed the test diet for 3 months. Similarly, after 3 months, the creatinine level in the plasma was also restored to a level not significantly (p > 0.05) different from that of the control but was significantly (p < 0.05) elevated in the urine. A significant increase in urine protein concentration was demonstrated after 1-month exposure to Cd, but no significant change occurred in the plasma. Rats fed diet containing the Cd-incorporated fish for 3 months also had no significant (p > 0.05) change in plasma and urine protein concentrations. These results suggest that this route of exposure caused kidney impairment, oxidative stress as well as alteration in glucose metabolism after 1 month but not after 3 months, possibly due to adaptation occasioned by the antioxidative defense armory of the rats.

Drug development for liver diseases: focus on picroliv, ellagic acid and curcumin

The use of herbal drugs for the treatment of liver diseases has a long tradition in many eastern countries. The easy accessibility without the need for laborious pharmaceutical synthesis has drawn increased attention towards herbal medicines. Few herbal preparations exist as standardized extracts with major known ingredients or even as pure compounds. Some of the herbals, which show promising activity, are ellagic acid for antifibrotic treatment, phyllanthin for treating chronic hepatitis B, glycyrrhizin to treat chronic viral hepatitis and picroliv for liver regeneration. These compounds, which have proven antioxidant, antiviral or anticarcinogenic properties, can serve as primary compounds for further development as hepatoprotective drugs. This review provides the chemistry, pharmacology and future aspects of picroliv, ellagic acid and curcumin with focus on hepatoprotective properties. These phytochemicals may prove to be very useful in the treatment of hepatotoxicity induced by viral agents, toxic drugs and plant poisons. The high safety profile may be an added advantage. However, poor bioavailability and temperature and light sensitivity can reduce the efficacy of drugs like curcumin. In future, the derivatives or new combinations of these drugs may prove to be useful.

Role of oxidative stress and apoptosis in cadmium induced thymic atrophy and splenomegaly in mice

Cadmium immunotoxicity in rodents is primarily characterized by marked thymic damage and splenomegaly. To understand the toxicity of Cd on lymphoid cells in vivo, a single dose of Cd as CdCl2 (1.8 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered to male BALB/c mice and cytotoxicity (MTT assay), oxidative stress indicators (glutathione, reactive oxygen species) and apoptotic markers (mitochondrial membrane potential, caspase-3 activity, phosphatidylserine externalization, apoptotic DNA, intranucleosomal DNA fragmentation) were assessed in thymic and splenic single cell suspensions, at various time intervals. Lowering of body weight gain and cellularity and a loss in cell viability was seen in the Cd treated mice. The earliest significant increase in ROS at 18 h, followed by mitochondrial membrane depolarization, caspase-3 activation and GSH depletion at 24h in spleen and later at 48 h in thymus, strongly implicate the possible involvement of ROS. A pronounced inhibition of cell proliferative response at 48 h and 72 h may also be linked to Cd induced apoptosis. The morphological alterations including thymic cortical cell depletion and an increase in red pulp with diminished white pulp in spleen were observed at 48 h and beyond. The splenic cells appeared more susceptible than thymus cells to the adverse effects of Cd. The present study, therefore, demonstrates potentiation of oxidative stress followed by mitochondrial-caspase dependent apoptotic pathway. This may, in part, be responsible for causing suppression of cell proliferative response, thymic atrophy and splenomegaly.