Sexual violence in women's lives. Findings from the Women's Safety Project, a community-based survey

How Do Service Employees Manage Violence? The Impact of Community Violence on Women's Emotional Demand in the Public Sector of Ethiopia

The experiences of violence against women employees can lead to long-term psychosocial problems in institutions, thereby preventing them from becoming productive citizens. Although many studies have focused on the effects of violence on women's job performance, there exist few works on the effects of community violence on women's emotional demand in the workplace. To address this gap, this research examines the impact of community violence on emotional labor and emotional dissonance in the public sector. This study involved 67 participants (20 semi-structured interviews, 32 participants in four focus group discussions, and 15 key informants), derived using a purposive sampling technique. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis to explore participants' explanations about the exposure and expression of community violence on women's emotional demands. Explanations were presented in terms of exposure (the state of being exposed to community violence) and expression (the reaction of victims to exposure in the workplace). The findings showed that the exposure of community violence on emotional labor can be expressed into three classifications: Gum up, Bottle up, and Defeatists (GBD). Furthermore, the study found out that women employees tend to conceal their felt emotions mainly due to the fear of reprisal, chiding rebuttal, and lack of support. The findings of the current study have policy implications. They can inform the micro-, meso-, and macro-level intervention efforts in mitigating the impacts of community violence on women's emotional demand at work.

Effects of Workplace Violence on Women's Psychosocial Functioning in Ethiopia: Emotional Demand and Social Relations at Civil Service Sectors in Focus

Workplace violence is a serious public problem affecting millions of women employees each year throughout the world. Researchers have established the prevalence, nature, and the degree of this violence; however, less is known about the effect of workplace violence on women's psychosocial functioning. This research addresses this knowledge gap by examining (a) the relationship between sociodemographic variables and workplace violence, (b) the association between sociodemographic variable and emotional labor, and (c) the effects of workplace violence on emotional demand and social relation. This research draws on a sample of women (n = 201) from Dabat district's civil service sectors, derived using systematic and proportionally stratified simple random sampling techniques. Data were analyzed using univariate analysis, post hoc Dunnett test, and binary logistic regression. Results show that workplace violence affected women employees without the discrimination of baseline variables. However, single women (16.43 [±2.91]) who have bachelor degree and above (16.88 [±2.19]) experienced more workplace violence by managers and colleagues when compared to other sociodemographic variables. Workplace violence mostly made women employees show their emotions to customers match with what they truly feel. From respondents, unmarried women and above degree holders had more likely to show their emotions to the customers directly (unadjusted odds ratio [UOR] = 5.44, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [5.29, 6.25]; adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 4.88, 95% CI = [4.67, 5.23]), arguably engaging in less emotional dissonance and high emotional labor. Sixty-one percent of respondents were also forced to accept others' points: ideas, concern, and feeling without believing in those views. From these findings, we argue that the workplace violence that women employees experience enables a wave of visible conflict and tension as they had reflected their internal feelings to the clients, coworkers, and managers, and if the women workers have had miscommunication with managers at workplace, it will endanger the institutions to accomplish day-to-day activities.

The Prevalence of Sexual Revictimization: A Meta-Analytic Review

The literature consistently demonstrates evidence that child sexual abuse survivors are at greater risk of victimization later in life than the general population. This phenomenon is called sexual revictimization. Although this finding is robust, there is a large amount of variability in the prevalence rates of revictimization demonstrated in the literature. The purpose of the present meta-analysis was to calculate an average prevalence rate of revictimization across the literature and to examine moderators that may potentially account for the observed variability. Based on a review of PsycINFO and PILOTS, 1,412 articles were identified and reviewed for inclusion. This process resulted in the inclusion of 80 studies, which contained 12,252 survivors of child sexual abuse. The mean prevalence of sexual revictimization across studies was 47.9% (95% confidence intervals [43.6%, 52.3%]), suggesting that almost half of child sexual abuse survivors are sexually victimized in the future. The present study failed to find support for any of the examined moderators. Potential explanations of and implications for the results are offered, including suggestions for therapists.

Making Sociological Sense Out of Trends in Intimate Partnera Violence

Despite evidence of a cultural shift in orientations toward violence, the problem of violence against women persists across a range of different societies. The preoccupation with the psychology of violence and the focus on cultural orientations obscure the more salient features of social life that promote violence: the structure of interpersonal relationships. The exploration of sociodemographic correlates and the search for “risk factors” of intimate partner violence have overshadowed the inclusion of a distinct set of social structural characteristics that are conducive to domestic violence. The current article draws on comparative research and Donald Black’s theoretical approach to argue that key factors include (a) the degree of social isolation, (b) interdependence of support networks, (c) inequality, (d) relational distance, (e) centralization of authority, and (f) exposure to violent networks. The weak explanatory power of previous research can be improved by developing measures to evaluate an integrated structural model of violence against women.

So Few Convictions

This study examines the role of client-related characteristics in the legal processing of sexual assaults. Data were collected from the hospital and legal records of 187 women who presented to a sexual assault treatment center and the police of a large Canadian city in 1994. The data analyses revealed that cases involving older women and women who did not physically resist the assailant were less likely to have resulted in a charge. However, women who were known to the assailant for more than 24 hours (including current or previous partners) were more likely to see their cases forwarded for prosecution.

Silenced suffering: the need for a better understanding of partner sexual violence

This article has two overall goals. First, to examine the current state of sexual violence research to highlight several shortcomings in the knowledge on partner sexual violence. Second, to describe several factors to consider in future research to facilitate a more in-depth understanding of partner sexual violence. Shortcomings of the research on partner sexual violence include (1) overreliance on dichotomous yes/no representations of sexual violence experiences; (2) lack of, or inadequate documentation of the scope and nature of partner sexual violence; (3) inadequate ways to account for impairment of consent under different circumstances; (4) difficulties in discriminating unwanted from nonconsensual sexual activities; and (5) limited information about the role sexual violence plays in the larger context of coercive control. In order to facilitate a more in-depth understanding of partner sexual assault, there is a need (1) to better understand the scope and nature of partner sexual assault and (2) to better understand the role partner sexual violence plays in coercive control. By improving the measurement of this phenomenon, victims, researchers, practitioners, and those involved in the justice system might be better equipped to respond to sexual violence among intimate partners.

Comparative analysis of prevalence of intimate partner violence against women in military and civilian communities in Abuja, Nigeria

Introduction

Intimate partner violence (IPV) occurs across the world, in various cultures, and affects people across societies irrespective of economic status or gender. Most data on IPV before World Health Organization multicountry study (WHOMCS) usually came from sources other than the military. Result of this study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge and may serve as a baseline for future studies in military populations. This study compares the prevalence of the different types of IPV against women in military and civilian communities in Abuja, Nigeria.

Methods

Using a multistage sampling technique, 260 women who had intimate male partners were selected from military and civilian communities of Abuja. Collected data on personal characteristics and different types of IPV experienced were analyzed to demonstrate comparison of the association between the different forms of IPV and the respondents’ sociodemographic and partner characteristics in the two study populations using percentages and χ-square statistics, and P-value was assumed to be significant at ≤0.05.

Results

The prevalence of the four major types of IPV was higher among the military respondents than among civilians: controlling behavior, 37.1% versus 29.1%; emotional/psychological abuse, 42.4% versus 13.4%; physical abuse, 19.7% versus 5.9%, and sexual abuse, 9.2% versus 8.8%. Significantly more respondents from the military population (59 [45.4%]) compared to civilians (21 [19.4%]) were prevented by their partners from seeing their friends (P=0.000). The situation is reversed with regard to permission to seek health care for self, with civilians reporting a significantly higher prevalence (35 [32.4%]) than did military respondents (20 [15.4%]) (P=0.002). The military respondents were clearly at a higher risk of experiencing all the variants of emotional violence than the civilians (P=0.00). The commonest form of physical violence against women was “being slapped or having something thrown at them, that could hurt”, which was markedly higher in the military (43 [33.1%]) than in the civilian population (10 [9.3%]), (P<0.05).

Conclusion

IPV is a significant public health problem in Abuja, and the military population is clearly at a higher risk of experiencing all forms of IPV compared to the civilian population. The military should encourage and finance research on effect of military operations and posttraumatic stress disorders on family relationships with a view of developing evidence-based treatment models for military personnel.

Woman abuse in Canada: sociological reflections on the past, suggestions for the future

Woman abuse in Canada started receiving much sociological attention in the mid-1980s. This article describes past scholarly achievements, assesses current contributions, and suggests progressive ways of responding to future challenges. Special attention is given to how broader political economic forces help shape and constrain research on a variety of highly injurious male-to-female assaults that occur in private settings.

The invisible suffering: sexual coercion, interpersonal violence, and mental health--a cross-sectional study among university students in south-western Uganda

Background

Despite a history of conflicts and widespread human rights violation in sub-Saharan Africa, little is known about the prevalence of interpersonal violence among the population in this region. Evidence from high-income countries suggests that exposure to violence has mental health consequences and violence also has associations with experiences of sexual coercion.

Aims

This study sought to investigate the prevalence of physical and perceived threats of violence among university students in Uganda and to assess the possible relationship between such violence, sexual coercion, and symptoms of anxiety, depression, and psychoticism, respectively.

Method

In 2005, 980 Ugandan university students responded to a self-administered questionnaire (response rate 80%) that assessed socio-demographic factors, social capital, importance of religion, mental health, experience of violence and sexual coercion, and sexual behaviour factors. Logistic regression analysis was applied as the main analytical tool.

Results

Of those who responded, 28% reported perceived threats/threats of violence and 10% exposure to actual physical violence over the previous 12 months, with no significant gender differences in exposure history. Exposure to violence was significantly associated with the experience of sexual coercion among both males and females. Sexual coercion and threats/threats of violence were both significantly associated with poor mental health in males and females, but only males showed a strong association between exposure to physical violence and poor mental health.

Conclusion

The current study suggests that in terms of general exposure, both males and females in the study population are equally exposed to sexual coercion and interpersonal violence, and both male and female students show generally similar mental health effects of exposure to such violence. The prevalence of interpersonal violence found in our study population may have long-term negative health implications. Our findings may serve as a baseline for interventions and continuing research aimed at preventing interpersonal violence.

Prospective effects of method of coercion in sexual victimization across the first college year

Women who enter college with a sexual victimization (SV) history may be at particular risk for deleterious outcomes including maladaptive alcohol involve posttraumatic stress, and re-victimization. Further, pre-college SV may be an impediment for the achievement of academic mile and may negatively impact the transition into college. Recent work shows that the method of coercion used in SV may be an important predictor of post-victimization outcomes. As such, the identification of pathways between type of SV and outcomes can aid in early identification and intervention for those at highest risk. In a sample of newly-matriculated female college students, this study examined unique outcomes associated with two specific types of SV, (1) threats/use of physical force (Force SV) or (2) incapacitation (Incap SV). Participants completed assessments of SV, alcohol involvement, posttraumatic stress, and academic outcomes at 6 time-points over their first year of college. Results showed differential outcomes based on pre-matriculation exposure to Force SV or Incap SV. Women with Incap SV were higher on problem drinking indices whereas women with Force SV were at greater risk for re-victimization and marginally more PTSD symptoms. Having a history of either type of SV predicted attrition, but there were no differences when comparing Force SV to Incap SV. Overall, results from this study support the utility of delineating SV experiences by method of coercion, and point to the potential of highlighting different outcomes in tailored intervention programs.

Emancipatory Sexuality Education and Sexual Assault Resistance

The current study examined whether adding emancipatory sexuality education, which encourages the exploration of women’s own sexual values and desires, to a sexual assault resistance program would improve women’s resistance to sexual assault by known men. The participants were 214 first-year university students. A randomized experimental design evaluated the effectiveness of a basic and sexuality enhanced version of a sexual assault resistance program against a no-program control. Both programs, compared to the control group, increased women’s perception of their own risk, their confidence that they could defend themselves if attacked, and their use of more effective methods of self-defense in hypothetical situations of acquaintance sexual assault. Effects were maintained from 3 to 6 months after program completion. No significant reductions in completed sexual assault were found. The sexuality enhanced program was superior in several areas, particularly risk detection and initiation of sexual activity, which may be important to women’s integration of the program’s content to their lives. Future research will need to strengthen and continue to evaluate the promising programs for women which now exist. Until effective programming for men on campus is developed and implemented widely, our best hope to improve the health and safety of female students lays in comprehensive women-only multi-unit sexual assault resistance education.

Predictors of sexual coercion against women and men: a multilevel, multinational study of university students

Several explanations have been forwarded to account for sexual coercion in romantic relationships. Feminist theory states that sexual coercion is the result of male dominance over women and the need to maintain that dominance; however, studies showing that women sexually coerce men point towards weaknesses in that theory. Some researchers have, therefore, suggested that it is the extent to which people view the other gender as hostile that influences these rates. Furthermore, much research suggests that a history of childhood sexual abuse is a strong risk factor for later sexual victimization in relationships. Few researchers have empirically evaluated the first two explanations and little is known about whether sexual revictimization operates for men or across cultures. In this study, hierarchical linear modeling was used to investigate whether the status of women and adversarial sexual beliefs predicted differences in sexual coercion across 38 sites from around the world, and whether sexual revictimization operated across genders and cultures. Participants included 7,667 university students from 38 sites. Results showed that the relative status of women at each site predicted significant differences in levels of sexual victimization for men, in that the greater the status of women, the higher the level of forced sex against men. In addition, differences in adversarial sexual beliefs across sites significantly predicted both forced and verbal sexual coercion for both genders, such that greater levels of hostility towards women at a site predicted higher levels of forced and verbal coercion against women and greater levels of hostility towards men at a site predicted higher levels of forced and verbal coercion against men. Finally, sexual revictimization occurred for both genders and across all sites, suggesting that sexual revictimization is a cross-gender, cross-cultural phenomenon. Results are discussed in terms of their contributions to the literature, limitations of the current study, and suggestions for future research.

Lethal and nonlethal violence against an intimate female partner: comparing male murderers to nonlethal abusers

Men's lethal and nonlethal violence against an intimate female partner are compared. Various risk factors are examined to compare men's lethal and nonlethal violence against an intimate woman partner. Relative to abusers, men who kill are generally more conventional with respect to childhood backgrounds, education, employment, and criminal careers, are more likely to be possessive and jealous, and are more likely to be separated from their partner at the time of the event. Men who kill are more likely to have used violence against a previous partner, to have sexually assaulted and strangled the victim, and to have used a weapon or instrument. However, they were less likely to have been drunk at the time of the event and/or to have previously used violence against the woman they killed. Overall, the findings do not support the notion of a simple progression from nonlethal to lethal violence and raise some dilemmas for the growing area of risk assessment.

Violence a global public health problem

This article is a version of the Introduction to the World Report on Violence and Health, published by the World Health Organization (WHO). It presents a general description about this phenomenon and points some basic questions: concepts and definitions about the theme; the state of knowledge about it; nature and typology on violence; proposal of a quantitative and qualitative approach of an ecological model; responsibilities and functions of the public health sector and its potentiality to prevent and reduce violence in the world; the responsibilities of the nations and the policy makers in a intersetorial point of view; difficulties and obstacles for actuation and challenges for the health sector.

The relations between family environment and violence exposure among youth: findings from the national survey of adolescents

A national household probability sample of 4,023 adolescents (ages 12 to 17) completed telephone interviews assessing demographics, adverse family environment, and violence exposure. Logistic regressions examined relations among family environment and each violence exposure type, controlling for demographics and other violence exposures. Relationships between family environment and violence exposure varied, depending on type of violence reported, most notably between intrafamilial versus extrafamilial violence. After controlling for family environment, exposure to one violence type significantly increased the likelihood of other violence exposures. Family substance use and not always living with a natural parent were significantly associated with all three types of violence exposure. Findings indicate that clinical assessments should include a thorough evaluation of family environment and violence exposure and also highlight the need for treatment to focus on the adolescent and broader family unit. Future research is needed to further examine these complex interrelationships and their associations with adolescent outcomes.

Violência: um problema global de saúde pública

Este artigo é uma versão do que foi publicado no Informe Mundial sobre Violência e Saúde, da Organização Mundial de Saúde (OMS), como introdução ao tema. Apresenta uma descrição geral da problemática e a posição da OMS. Nele, os autores se dedicam a responder algumas questões básicas: o estado do conhecimento sobre o assunto; os conceitos e definições com os quais a OMS trabalha; a natureza e a tipologia sobre violência; as formas de abordagem quantitativa e qualitativa em um modelo ecológico; o lugar e o papel da saúde pública e sua potencialidade com vistas a contribuir para prevenir e diminuir a violência no mundo; as responsabilidades das nações e dos gestores em todos os níveis; os obstáculos para atuação e os desafios para o setor.

Sexual revictimization: a review of the empirical literature

This article reviews the literature on sexual revictimization, covering approximately 90 empirical studies and includes a discussion of prevalence, risk factors, and correlates of sexual revictimization. Research suggests that two of three individuals who are sexually victimized will be revictimized. The occurrence of childhood sexual abuse and its severity are the best documented and researched predictors of sexual revictimization. Multiple traumas, especially childhood physical abuse, and recency of sexual victimization are also associated with higher risk. There is preliminary evidence that membership in some ethnic groups or coming from a dysfunctional family places an individual at a greater risk. Revictimization is associated with higher distress and certain psychiatric disorders. People who were revictimized show difficulty in interpersonal relationships, coping, self-representations, and affect regulation and exhibit greater self-blame and shame. Existing research on prevention efforts and treatment is discussed. More longitudinal studies on sexual revictimization are needed.

Sexual assault in the lives of urban sex workers: a descriptive and comparative analysis

This exploratory study contributes to the sparse literature on sexually assaulted sex workers. We examined 462 sexual assault cases seen at an emergency department-based sexual assault service and reported to the police between 1993 and 1997. More than one fifth of victims were sex workers. We compared them to other victims on victim characteristics, assault characteristics, and medical-legal findings. Relative to other victims, sex workers were younger, had lower incomes, and were more likely to be heroin and/or cocaine users. They suffered a greater number of injuries and forensic samples collected from their bodies were more likely to test positive for sperm and/or semen. These victims were also less likely to have been using alcohol and/or marijuana prior to the assault and to be emotionally expressed during the medical- legal examination. The substantial proportion of sex workers in the study population suggests that attention to their particular needs should be an important part of hospital-based sexual assault services. Clinical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Violence against Canadian Women

HEALTH ISSUE: Exposure to violence as children or as adults places a woman at higher risk of poor health outcomes, both physical and psychological. Abused women use more health care services and have poorer social functioning than non-abused women. Knowledge of the prevalence of violence against women, and of which women are at risk, should assist in the planning of services for abuse prevention and treatment of the health consequences of abuse. KEY FINDINGS: The highest rates of any partner violence were in Alberta (25.5%) and British Columbia (23%). The lowest rates were in Ontario (18.8%). Women aged 15-24 had the highest rates in all regions in Canada, compared with older women. Aboriginal women in Manitoba/Saskatchewan and Alberta had higher rates of violence (57.2% and 56.6% respectively) than non-Aboriginal women (20.6%). Lower rates of partner-related violence were reported among women not born in Canada (18.4%) than among Canadian-born women (21.7%). Visible minority women reported lower rates of lifetime sexual assault (5.7%) than non-visible minority women (12.3%). Perceptions of violence may vary by ethnicity. DATA GAPS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: More information is required concerning the prevalence of violence among Aboriginal women, immigrant and refugee women, women with disabilities, lesbian women and pregnant women. Future national population-based surveys need better questions on the health consequences of violence and related resource utilization. Further research is needed to identify the health care system's role in prevention, management and rehabilitation as they relate to violence against women. Future programs and policies must be based on valid, reliable and comprehensive empirical data.

An integrative review of separation in the context of victimization: consequences and implications for women

Given the number of divorces that occur each year as well as the high rates of intimate partner violence, it is critical that divorce/separation and victimization be considered in research and in clinical practice with women. However, the separation/divorce research and victimization research has often been conducted independently, with limited attention to integration. The integration of these two domains is critically important in facilitating the understanding of these issues for women. This article has 5 main purposes: (a) to review the research on the general consequences of separation; (b) to review the research on the consequences of separation when children are involved; (c) to review the research on the consequences of victimization; (d) to integrate the separation and victimization research to examine separation in the context of victimization; and (e) to discuss the implications of separation in the context of victimization for practice and research.

Counseling services for battered women: a comparison of outcomes for physical and sexual assault survivors

Approximately 15% of married or cohabiting women and as many as 60% of battered women are raped at least once by their partners. This study compared community-based counseling outcomes of battered women with outcomes of women who were both raped and battered by their partners. Over time, both groups improved in wellbeing and coping. Although those both battered and raped progressed more in counseling, they had lower scores before and after counseling compared to women who were battered only. Implications for research and intervention are discussed.

Intimate partner violence and health: a critique of Canadian prevalence studies

OBJECTIVE

The Canadian Public Health Association, along with other professional organizations, has identified intimate partner violence (IPV) as a priority health issue to which the health professions must respond. This study synthesizes Canadian studies on the prevalence of IPV against women, focusing in particular on the stated implications for women's health and health care.

METHODS

Medical and social science databases were searched for all articles pertaining to IPV in Canada for 1974 through September 2000. Reference lists of these and other related publications were consulted to supplement the literature review. Data on study characteristics, methods, and results were extracted by two independent reviewers. Discrepancies were resolved by consensus.

RESULTS

Sixteen studies were identified in this review, 11 population-based and 5 conducted in clinical settings. Age, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status were not consistently documented, making comparisons and evaluations of generalizability difficult. Annual prevalence of IPV in Canada was found to range from 0.4% to 23%, with severe violence occurring from 2% to 10% annually. Less than two fifths (37.5%) of the studies incorporated a health-related measure.

INTERPRETATION

This review reveals a paucity of Canadian prevalence data on IPV, marked by design and methodological issues. Poor quality data may pose a challenge to articulating and establishing a coordinated health care response to eliminating IPV in Canada.

Experiences of sexual harassment and abuse among Norwegian elite female athletes and nonathletes

This paper compares the prevalence of sexual harassment and abuse among 660 Norwegian elite female athletes and an age-matched control sample of nonathletes. It also explores differences in the prevalence of harassment and abuse in sport and work or school settings and compares harassment and abuse perpetrated by male authority figures and peers in these different contexts. No differences were found between the athletes and controls in overall prevalence of sexual harassment or abuse. However, the athletes experienced significantly more harassment from male authority figures than did the controls. Based on these results, the article considers whether or not sport offers women any particular immunity from sexual harassment and abuse. The implications of the findings for structural and cultural change in sport are discussed.

Prevalence of wife rape and other intimate partner sexual coercion in a nationally representative sample of women

This article provides a national estimate of wife rape and various other types of sexual coercion by a spouse or intimate partner. Findings from a 1997 national probability sample revealed that 34% of women were victims of some type of sexual coercion with a husband or partner in their lifetime. Of these women, 10% experienced rape by a current partner. This rate increased to 13% when only victims of rape by a current husband were included, which is consistent with previous studies on wife rape. Other findings reveal that women had unwanted sex with a current spouse or partner in return for a partner's spending money on them (24%), because they thought it was their "duty" (43%), after a romantic situation (29%), after the partner begged and pleaded with them (26%), and after their partner said things to bully them (9%). The importance of examining a continuum of sexual coercion is discussed and findings are compared and contrasted with other prevalence rates for sexual coercion in marriage.

Understanding domestic violence against women: using evolutionary psychology to extend the feminist functional analysis

Evolutionary psychologists such as Wilson and Daly (1993b) hypothesize that one goal of male-perpetrated domestic violence is control over female sexuality, including the deterrence of infidelity. According to this hypothesis, domestic violence varies with women's reproductive value or expected future reproduction, declining steeply as women age. We tested this hypothesis with a sample of 3,969 cases of male-perpetrated partner-abuse reported to a single police precinct in a large urban area over a 14-year period. Results show that (a) rates of domestic violence decrease as women age, (b) younger men are at greatest risk for perpetrating domestic violence, (c) younger, reproductive age women incur nearly 10 times the risk of domestic violence as do older, post-reproductive age women, and (d) the greater risk of domestic violence incurred by reproductive age women is not attributable solely to mateship to younger, more violent men. Discussion addresses theoretical implications of these findings and suggests a refinement of the feminist hypothesis of domestic violence against women.