Landscapes of Time: Building Long-Term Perspectives in Animal Behavior

In the 1960s, scientists fascinated by the behavior of free-living animals founded research projects that expanded into multi-generation investigations. This paper charts the history of three scientists' projects to uncover the varied reasons for investing in a "long-term" perspective when studying animal behavior: Kenneth Armitage's study of marmots in the Rocky Mountains, Jeanne Altmann's analysis of baboons in Kenya, and Timothy Hugh Clutton-Brock's studies (among others) of red deer on the island of Rhum and meerkats in the Kalahari. The desire to study the behavior of the same group of animals over extended periods of time, I argue, came from different methodological traditions - population biology, primatology, and sociobiology - even as each saw themselves as contributing to the legacy of ethology. As scientists embraced and combined these approaches, a small number of long-running behavioral ecology projects like these grew from short pilot projects into decades-long centers of intellectual gravity within behavioral ecology as a discipline. By attending to time as well as place, we can see how this long-term perspective was crucial to their success; they measured evolutionary changes over generations of animals and their data provided insights into how the animals they studied were adapting (or not) to changing local and global environmental factors.

"It Felt More like a Revolution." How Behavioral Ecology Succeeded Ethology, 1970-1990

As soon as ethology's status diminished in the early 1970s, it was confronted with two successor disciplines, sociobiology and behavioral ecology. They were able to challenge ethology because it no longer provided markers of strong disciplinarity such as theoretical coherence, leading figures and a clear identity. While behavioral ecology developed organically out of the UK ethological research community into its own disciplinary standing, sociobiology presented itself as a US competitor to the ethological tradition. I will show how behavioral ecology took the role of legitimate heir to ethology by rebuilding a theoretical core and an intellectual sense of community, while sociobiology failed to use its public appeal to reach disciplinary status. Meanwhile, ethology changed its disciplinary identity to encompass all biological studies of animal behavior.

Emergence of zoonoses such as COVID-19 reveals the need for health sciences to embrace an explicit eco-social conceptual framework of health and disease

An accurate understanding of why zoonoses such as SARS-CoV-2 are emerging at an increased rate, is vital to prevent future pandemics from the approximately 700,000 viruses with zoonotic potential. Certain authors have argued that the consumption of wildlife, or human contact with bats was responsible for the emergence of SARS-CoV-2. Others argue that a range of anthropogenic environmental degradations have played a vital role in the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 and other zoonoses. In this opinion piece, I argue that these divergent viewpoints stem, in part, from different foundational conceptual frameworks - biomedical individualist and eco-social frameworks, respectively. Based on the fact that the eco-social framework provides a more complete account of the different types of causal factors underpinning the emergence of zoonoses, I propose that the COVID-19 pandemic provides an additional reason for the health sciences to ground its theory of health and disease in an eco-social conceptual framework.

Do lizards have enhanced inhibition? A test in two species differing in ecology and sociobiology

Waiting for the right moment to strike, avoiding the ingestion of harmful foods, or ignoring stimuli associated with ephemeral or depleted resources requires the inhibition of prepotent responses. Good response inhibition facilities flexibility in behaviour which is associated with survival in unpredictable environments. To investigate differences in behavioural flexibility in lizards, we tested reversal learning in the sleepy lizard (Tiliqua rugosa asper) and compared its performance to the relatively closely related eastern blue-tongue skink (Tiliqua scincoides scincoides). We presented both species with a choice between either a light and dark blue stimulus or a triangle and X shape. Both species were able to learn to discriminate between these stimuli and showed similar learning ability during the acquisition of the discrimination. Sleepy lizards, however, demonstrated a higher probability of making a correct choice at the start of the reversal, hinting towards enhanced stimulus response inhibition. Sleepy lizards and blue-tongue skinks inhabit different environments and show differences in ecology and sociobiology, all of which could possibly lead to adaptive specialisation in cognitive ability. Although further research is required, we propose that selection might have led to a change in stimulus response inhibition in the arid-adapted sleepy lizard, because better response inhibition may help them avoid the costs of repeated choices towards stimuli which no longer predict a beneficial outcome.

Genetic relatedness and its causal role in the evolution of insect societies

The role of genetic relatedness in social evolution has recently come under critical attention. These arguments are here critically analyzed, both theoretically and empirically. It is argued that when the conceptual structure of the theory of natural selection is carefully taken into account, genetic relatedness can be seen to play an indispensable role in the evolution of both facultative and advanced eusociality. Although reviewing the empirical evidence concerning the evolution of eusociality reveals that relatedness does not play a role in the initial appearance of helper phenotypes, this follows simply from the fact that natural selection - of which relatedness is a necessary component - does not play a causal role in the origin of any traits. Further, separating two logically distinct elements of causal explanation - necessity and sufficiency - explains why the debate lingers on: although relatedness plays a necessary role in the evolution of helping and advanced eusociality, relatedness alone is not sufficient for their appearance. Therefore, if the relatedness variable in a given data set is held at a uniformly high value, then it indeed may turn out that other factors occupy a more prominent role. However, this does not change the fact that high relatedness functions as a necessary background condition for the evolution of advanced eusociality.

The sociobiology of genes: the gene's eye view as a unifying behavioural-ecological framework for biological evolution

Although classical evolutionary theory, i.e., population genetics and the Modern Synthesis, was already implicitly 'gene-centred', the organism was, in practice, still generally regarded as the individual unit of which a population is composed. The gene-centred approach to evolution only reached a logical conclusion with the advent of the gene-selectionist or gene's eye view in the 1960s and 1970s. Whereas classical evolutionary theory can only work with (genotypically represented) fitness differences between individual organisms, gene-selectionism is capable of working with fitness differences among genes within the same organism and genome. Here, we explore the explanatory potential of 'intra-organismic' and 'intra-genomic' gene-selectionism, i.e., of a behavioural-ecological 'gene's eye view' on genetic, genomic and organismal evolution. First, we give a general outline of the framework and how it complements the-to some extent-still 'organism-centred' approach of classical evolutionary theory. Secondly, we give a more in-depth assessment of its explanatory potential for biological evolution, i.e., for Darwin's 'common descent with modification' or, more specifically, for 'historical continuity or homology with modular evolutionary change' as it has been studied by evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo) during the last few decades. In contrast with classical evolutionary theory, evo-devo focuses on 'within-organism' developmental processes. Given the capacity of gene-selectionism to adopt an intra-organismal gene's eye view, we outline the relevance of the latter model for evo-devo. Overall, we aim for the conceptual integration between the gene's eye view on the one hand, and more organism-centred evolutionary models (both classical evolutionary theory and evo-devo) on the other.

The Long-term Health Effects of Fetal Malnutrition: Evidence from the 1959-1961 China Great Leap Forward Famine

We report evidence of long-term adverse health impacts of fetal malnutrition exposure of middle-aged survivors of the 1959-1961 China Famine using data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study. We find that fetal exposure to malnutrition has large and long-lasting impacts on both physical health and cognitive abilities, including the risks of suffering a stroke, physical disabilities in speech, walking and vision, and measures of mental acuity even half a century after the tragic event. Our findings imply that policies and programs that improve the nutritional status of pregnant women yield benefits on the health of a fetus that extend through the life cycle in the form of reduced physical and mental impairment.

Decreasing incidence and mortality among hospitalized patients suffering a ventilator-associated pneumonia: Analysis of the Spanish national hospital discharge database from 2010 to 2014

The aim of this study was to describe trends in the incidence and outcomes of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) among hospitalized patients in Spain (2010-2014).This is a retrospective study using the Spanish national hospital discharge database from year 2010 to 2014. We selected all hospital admissions that had an ICD-9-CM code: 997.31 for VAP in any diagnosis position. We analyzed incidence, sociodemographic and clinical characteristics, procedures, pathogen isolations, and hospital outcomes.We identified 9336 admissions with patients suffering a VAP. Incidence rates of VAP decreased significantly over time (from 41.7 cases/100,000 inhabitants in 2010 to 40.55 in 2014). The mean Charlson comorbidity index (CCI) was 1.08 ± 0.98 and it did not change significantly during the study period. The most frequent causative agent was Pseudomonas and there were not significant differences in the isolation of this microorganism over time. Time trend analyses showed a significant decrease in in-hospital mortality (IHM), from 35.74% in 2010 to 32.81% in 2014. Factor associated with higher IHM included male sex, older age, higher CCI, vein or artery occlusion, pulmonary disease, cancer, undergone surgery, emergency room admission, and readmission.This study shows that the incidence of VAP among hospitalized patients has decreased in Spain from 2010 to 2014. The IHM has also decreased over the study period. Further investigations are needed to improve the prevention and control of VAP.

Integrating the Principles of Socioecology and Critical Pedagogy for Health Promotion Health Literacy Interventions

While health literacy research has experienced tremendous growth in the last two decades, the field still struggles to devise interventions that lead to lasting change. Most health literacy interventions are at the individual level and focus on resolving clinician-patient communication difficulties. As a result, the interventions use a deficit model that treats health literacy as a patient problem that needs to be fixed or circumvented. We propose that public health health literacy interventions integrate the principles of socioecology and critical pedagogy to develop interventions that build capacity and empower individuals and communities. Socioecology operates on the premise that health outcome is hinged on the interplay between individuals and their environment. Critical pedagogy assumes education is inherently political, and the ultimate goal of education is social change. Integrating these two approaches will provide a useful frame in which to develop interventions that move beyond the individual level.

Perceptions of Family Participation in Intensive Care Unit Rounds and Telemedicine: A Qualitative Assessment

BACKGROUND

Family-centered rounds involve purposeful interactions between patients' families and care providers to refocus the delivery of care on patients' needs.

OBJECTIVES

To examine perspectives of patients' family members and health care providers on family participation in rounds in the surgical intensive care unit (ICU) and the potential use of telemedicine to facilitate this process.

METHODS

Patients' family members and surgical ICU care providers were recruited for semistructured interviews exploring stakeholders' perspectives on family participation in ICU rounds and the potential role of telemedicine. Thirty-two interviews were conducted, audio recorded, and transcribed verbatim. Common coding methods were facilitated by using NVivo 10. A mean coding agreement of 97.3% was calculated for 22% of transcripts.

RESULTS

Both patients' family members and health care providers described inconsistent practices surrounding family participation in ICU rounds as well as barriers to and facilitators of family participation. Family members identified 3 primary logistical challenges to participation in ICU rounds: distance to hospitals, work/family obligations, and the rounding schedule. Both family members and providers reported receptivity to virtual participation as a potential solution to these challenges.

CONCLUSIONS

Understanding the barriers to and facilitators of family participation in ICU rounds is key to encouraging adoption of family-centered rounds. For families that live far away or have competing demands, telemedical options may facilitate participation.

Concentrating on Beauty: Sexual Selection and Sociospatial Memory

In three experiments, location memory for faces was examined using a computer version of the matching game Concentration. Findings suggested that physical attractiveness led to more efficient matching for female faces but not for male faces. Study 3 revealed this interaction despite allowing participants to initially see, attend to, and match the attractive male faces in the first few turns. Analysis of matching errors suggested that, compared to other targets, attractive women were less confusable with one another. Results are discussed in terms of the different functions that attractiveness serves for men and women.

Relationship Power and Betrayal Experience as Predictors of Reactions to Infidelity

Explanations for sexual infidelity have been dominated by an evolutionary psychological theory of jealousy that finds its strongest support in research that employs a forced-choice hypothetical infidelity paradigm wherein participants imagine experiencing infidelity and choose whether sexual or emotional infidelity would be more distressing. Robust gender differences that support evolutionary psychological perspectives are consistently found using this paradigm, but recent work suggests that gender differences may be attenuated among actual infidelity victims. However, no research has used the forced-choice paradigm to compare real and hypothetical infidelity. This study uses this paradigm to compare reactions to imagined dating infidelity to those of infidelity victims. No gender differences are observed in response to the forced-choice question among victims of infidelity. Gender differences among participants who imagined infidelity are partially mediated by level of relationship power. Difficulties with the hypothetical forced-choice paradigm and implications for the evolutionary psychological theory of jealousy are discussed.

Process of endogenous homeostatic characteristics decline in two suproopganismal biosystems from the standpoint of parametabolistic theory of senescence

Endogenous decline in homeostatic characteristics of supraorganismal level systems is similar to individual senescence. Similarity is in the fact that this decline as individual senescence is called by negative consequences from specialization of elements the system consists. In systems of supraorganismal level these effects are analogues of parametabolic reactions of senescence individuals.

Ecological variation in wealth-fertility relationships in Mongolia: the 'central theoretical problem of sociobiology' not a problem after all?

The negative wealth-fertility relationship brought about by market integration remains a puzzle to classic evolutionary models. Evolutionary ecologists have argued that this phenomenon results from both stronger trade-offs between reproductive and socioeconomic success in the highest social classes and the comparison of groups rather than individuals. Indeed, studies in contemporary low fertility settings have typically used aggregated samples that may mask positive wealth-fertility relationships. Furthermore, while much evidence attests to trade-offs between reproductive and socioeconomic success, few studies have explicitly tested the idea that such constraints are intensified by market integration. Using data from Mongolia, a post-socialist nation that underwent mass privatization, we examine wealth-fertility relationships over time and across a rural-urban gradient. Among post-reproductive women, reproductive fitness is the lowest in urban areas, but increases with wealth in all regions. After liberalization, a demographic-economic paradox emerges in urban areas: while educational attainment negatively impacts female fertility in all regions, education uniquely provides socioeconomic benefits in urban contexts. As market integration progresses, socio-economic returns to education increase and women who limit their reproduction to pursue education get wealthier. The results support the view that selection favoured mechanisms that respond to opportunities for status enhancement rather than fertility maximization.

Evolutionary demography of agricultural expansion in preindustrial northern Finland

A shift from nomadic foraging to sedentary agriculture was a major turning point in human evolutionary history, increasing our population size and eventually leading to the development of modern societies. We however lack understanding of the changes in life histories that contributed to the increased population growth rate of agriculturalists, because comparable individual-based reproductive records of sympatric populations of agriculturalists and foragers are rarely found. Here, we compared key life-history traits and population growth rate using comprehensive data from the seventieth to nineteenth century Northern Finland: indigenous Sami were nomadic hunter-fishers and reindeer herders, whereas sympatric agricultural Finns relied predominantly on animal husbandry. We found that agriculture-based families had higher lifetime fecundity, faster birth spacing and lower maternal mortality. Furthermore, agricultural Finns had 6.2% higher annual population growth rate than traditional Sami, which was accounted by differences between the subsistence modes in age-specific fecundity but not in mortality. Our results provide, to our knowledge, the most detailed demonstration yet of the demographic changes and evolutionary benefits that resulted from agricultural revolution.

Eliciting preferences to the EQ-5D-5L health states: discrete choice experiment or multiprofile case of best-worst scaling?

Choice-based methods have been used widely in assessing healthcare programs. This study compared the binary discrete choice experiment (DCE) and the multiprofile case of best-worst scaling (BWS) in eliciting preferences for the EQ-5D-5L. Forty-eight EQ-5D-5L health states were selected using a Bayesian efficient design and grouped into 24 pairs for the DCE tasks and 8 sets for the BWS tasks (each set has three health states). A total of 100 participants completed 12 pairs and 8 sets in a random order. A probit regression model and ranked order logistic regression model were used to estimate the latent utilities from the DCE and BWS, respectively. Both tasks were well understood by the majority of participants. The DCE tasks were relatively easier and took a shorter time to complete. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of the DCE was higher than that of the BWS. The variances associated with the latent utilities estimated from the DCE were larger than those from the BWS. The DCE is more feasible and reliable than the BWS in valuing the EQ-5D-5L. Future studies could focus on comparing the consistency and accuracy of these techniques in predicting the health utilities of the EQ-5D-5L.

Are women who smoke at higher risk for lung cancer than men who smoke?

Worldwide lung cancer incidence is decreasing or leveling off among men, but rising among women. Sex differences in associations of tobacco carcinogens with lung cancer risk have been hypothesized, but the epidemiologic evidence is conflicting. We tested sex-smoking interaction in association with lung cancer risk within a population-based case-control study, the Environment and Genetics in Lung Cancer Etiology (EAGLE) Study (Lombardy, Italy, 2002-2005). Detailed lifetime smoking histories were collected by personal interview in 2,100 cases with incident lung cancer and 2,120 controls. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for pack-years of cigarette smoking were estimated by logistic regression, adjusted for age, residence area, and time since quitting smoking. To assess sex-smoking interaction, we compared the slopes of odds ratios for logarithm of pack-years in a model for men and women combined. Overall, the slope for pack-years was steeper in men (odds ratio for female-smoking interaction = 0.39, 95% confidence interval: 0.24, 0.62; P < 0.0001); after restriction to ever smokers, the difference in slopes was much smaller (odds ratio for interaction = 0.63, 95% confidence interval: 0.29, 1.37; P = 0.24). Similar results were found by histological type. Results were unchanged when additional confounders were evaluated (e.g., tobacco type, inhalation depth, Fagerström-assessed nicotine dependence). These findings do not support a higher female susceptibility to tobacco-related lung cancer.

[Principles of development and prophylaxis of diseases in the course of noospherogenesis from the standpoint of predictive-preventive personified medicine]

Human population actively forms noosphere from the biosphere which leads to a change in biological nature of man and the range of diseases that affect him. The use of molecular predictors derived from genome, metabolome, proteome, and microbiome in clinical practice opens up an opportunity to pass to more effective predictive--protective personified medicine.

On the genetic modification of psychology, personality, and behavior

I argue that the use of heritable modifications for psychology, personality, and behavior should be limited to the reversal or prevention of relatively unambiguous instances of pathology or likely harm (e.g. sociopathy). Most of the likely modifications of psychological personality would not be of this nature, however, and parents therefore should not have the freedom to make such modifications to future children. I argue by examining the viewpoints of both the individual and society. For individuals, modifications would interfere with their capacity for self-determination in a way that undermines the very concept of self-determination. I argue that modification of psychology and personality is unlike present parenting in morally significant ways. For society, modification offers a medium for power to manipulate the makeup of persons and populations, possibly causing biological harm to the species and altering our conceptions of social responsibility.

Why do women have more children than they want? Understanding differences in women's ideal and actual family size in a natural fertility population

OBJECTIVES

We develop and test a conceptual model of factors influencing women's ideal family size (IFS) in a natural fertility population, the Tsimane of Bolivia. The model posits affects of socioecology, reproductive history, maternal condition, and men's IFS. We test three hypotheses for why women may exceed their IFS despite experiencing socioeconomic development: (H(1) ) limited autonomy; (H(2) ) improved maternal condition; and (H(3) ) low returns on investments in embodied capital.

METHODS

Women's reproductive histories and prospective fertility data were collected from 2002 to 2008 (n = 305 women). Semistructured interviews were conducted with Tsimane women to study the perceived value of parental investment (n = 76). Multiple regression, t-tests, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) are used to test model predictions.

RESULTS

Women's IFS is predicted by their socioecology, reproductive history, maternal condition, and husband's IFS. Hypotheses 2 and 3 are supported. Couples residing near town have smaller IFS (women = 3.75 ± 1.64; men = 3.87 ± 2.64) and less variance in IFS. However, the degree fertility exceeds IFS is inversely correlated with distance to town (Partial r = -0.189, df = 156, P = 0.018). Women living near town have greater maternal condition but 64% value traditional skills over formal schooling and 88% believe living in town is unfeasible.

CONCLUSIONS

While reduced IFS is evident with socioeconomic development, fertility decline may not immediately follow. When perceived benefits of investment in novel forms of embodied capital are low, and somatic wealth and large kin networks persist as important components of fitness, fertility may remain high and increase if maternal condition improves.

The sociobiology of sex: inclusive fitness consequences of inter-sexual interactions

The diversity of social interactions between sexual partners has long captivated biologists, and its evolution has been interpreted largely in terms of 'direct fitness' pay-offs to partners and their descendants. Inter-sexual interactions also have 'indirect effects' by affecting the fitness of relatives, with important consequences for inclusive fitness. However, inclusive fitness arguments have received limited consideration in this context, and definitions of 'direct' and 'indirect' fitness effects in this field are often inconsistent with those of inclusive fitness theory. Here, we use a sociobiology approach based on inclusive fitness theory to distinguish between direct and indirect fitness effects. We first consider direct effects: we review how competition leads to sexual conflict, and discuss the conditions under which repression of competition fosters sexual mutualism. We then clarify indirect effects, and show that greenbeard effects, kin recognition and population viscosity can all lead to episodes of indirect selection on sexual interactions creating potential for sexual altruism and spite. We argue that the integration of direct and indirect fitness effects within a sociobiology approach enables us to consider a more diverse spectrum of evolutionary outcomes of sexual interactions, and may help resolving current debates over sexual selection and sexual conflict.

A reproductive threat-based model of evolved sex differences in jealousy

Although heterosexual women and men consistently demonstrate sex differences in jealousy, these differences disappear among lesbians and gay men as well as among heterosexual women and men contemplating same-sex infidelities (infidelities in which the partner and rival are the same sex). Synthesizing these past findings, the present paper offers a reproductive threat-based model of evolved sex differences in jealousy that predicts that the sexes will differ only when the jealous perceivers' reproductive outcomes are differentially at risk. This model is supported by data from a web-based study in which lesbians, gay men, bisexual women and men, and heterosexual women and men responded to a hypothetical infidelity scenario with the sex of the rival randomly determined. After reading the scenario, participants indicated which type of infidelity (sexual versus emotional) would cause greater distress. Consistent with predictions, heterosexual women and men showed a sex difference when contemplating opposite-sex infidelities but not when contemplating same-sex infidelities, whereas lesbians and gay men showed no sex difference regardless of whether the infidelity was opposite-sex or same-sex.

Parent-offspring conflict over mating: testing the tradeoffs hypothesis

The difference in genetic relatedness between parents and offspring results into traits such as beauty being more beneficial in a spouse than in an in-law. As a consequence, mate and in-law preferences do not overlap, and each party tends to prefer more the traits that give it more benefits. This paper tests the hypothesis that this divergence in preferences interacts with the tradeoffs nature of mating to give rise to parent-offspring conflict over mating. In particular, using a design where mate choice is constrained by a budget, three hypotheses are tested: First, asymmetries between in-law and mate preferences result in asymmetrical compromises in the choice of an in-law and a spouse. Second, the hypothesis is tested that when choice is constrained, disagreement spreads to traits where there is no divergence between in-law and mate preferences. Finally, it is hypothesized that there is a negative relationship between mate value and parent-offspring conflict over mating. Evidence from two independent studies in two different countries provides support for all three hypotheses.

Popularizing the ancestry of man: Robert Ardrey and the killer instinct

This essay examines Robert Ardrey (1908-1980)-American playwright, screenwriter, and prolific author-as a case study in the popularization of science. Bringing together evidence from both paleoanthropology and ethology, Ardrey became in the 1960s a vocal proponent of the theory that human beings are innately violent. The essay shows that Ardrey used his popular scientific books not only to consolidate a new science of human nature but also to question the popularizer's standard role, to reverse conventional hierarchies of scientific expertise, and to test the boundaries of professional scientific authority. Understanding how he did this can help us reassess the meanings and uses of popular science as critique in Cold War America. The essay also shows that E. O. Wilson's sociobiology was in part a reaction to the subversive political message of Ardrey's science.

Does biology underlie the oldest profession? Prostitution and sex disparities in john behavior

This study considers a biosocial explanation of why johns, the purchasers of commercial sex exchanges, are almost exclusively male. Trivers's theory of parental investment and sexual selection predicts that differential parental investment by biological sex will lead to divergent sex-based reproductive instincts. The sex bearing the larger parental investment will tend to be choosier whereas the sex bearing the lesser investment will tend to be relatively indiscriminate and competitive for access to sexual resources. We hypothesized that men are more likely than women to offer objects of value in exchange for access to sexual resources. Using self-reports of sex-purchasing from Add Health data (N = 14,544), we found that maleness was a robust predictor of john behavior even after controlling for well-known criminogenic risk factors.

Language: the perspective from organismal biology

The evolution of language and its mechanisms has been a topic of intense speculation and debate, particularly considering the question of innate endowment. Modern biological sciences - neurobiology and neuroethology - have made great strides in understanding proximate and ultimate causes of behavior. These insights are generally ignored in the debate regarding linguistic knowledge, especially in the realm of syntax where core theoretical constructs have been proposed unconstrained by evolutionary biology. The perspective of organismal biology offers an approach to the study of language that is sensitive to its evolutionary context, a growing trend in other domains of cognitive science. The emergence of a research program in the comparative biology of syntax is one concrete example of this trend.

On our best behavior: optimality models in human behavioral ecology

This paper discusses problems associated with the use of optimality models in human behavioral ecology. Optimality models are used in both human and non-human animal behavioral ecology to test hypotheses about the conditions generating and maintaining behavioral strategies in populations via natural selection. The way optimality models are currently used in behavioral ecology faces significant problems, which are exacerbated by employing the so-called 'phenotypic gambit': that is, the bet that the psychological and inheritance mechanisms responsible for behavioral strategies will be straightforward. I argue that each of several different possible ways we might interpret how optimality models are being used for humans face similar and additional problems. I suggest some ways in which human behavioral ecologists might adjust how they employ optimality models; in particular, I urge the abandonment of the phenotypic gambit in the human case.

Evolutionary, biologic, and social aspects of skin color

To understand the diversity of skin color now observed in people of the five continents, one has to go back in history. In fact, geology, archeological findings, biology and medical science, as well as anthropology, linguistics, and contemporary genetic techniques enable us to patch up a clear picture of the past up to the present - the evolution of the Homo sapiens. Owing to its undeniable visibility, skin color has always had a sociologic connotation, which has up to the present time caused division between people.

Cooperation: Bridging Ecology and Sociobiology

Ecology is considered central to the evolution of cooperation, but there is little direct evidence for this. New support for the idea has come from a study which shifted the path of evolution from cooperation to cheating in flasks of bacteria, simply by altering their disturbance regime.

Cooperation Peaks at Intermediate Disturbance

Explaining cooperation is a challenge for evolutionary biology. Surprisingly, the role of extrinsic ecological parameters remains largely unconsidered. Disturbances are widespread in nature and have evolutionary consequences. We develop a mathematical model predicting that cooperative traits most readily evolve at intermediate disturbance. Under infrequent disturbance, cooperation breaks down through the accumulation of evolved cheats. Higher rates of disturbance prevent this because the resulting bottlenecks increase genetic structuring (relatedness) promoting kin selection for cooperation. However, cooperation cannot be sustained under very frequent disturbance if population density remains below the level required for successful cooperation. We tested these predictions by using cooperative biofilm formation by the bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens. The proportion of biofilm-forming bacteria peaked at intermediate disturbance, in a manner consistent with model predictions. Under infrequent and intermediate disturbance, most bacteria occupied the biofilm, but the proportion of cheats was higher under less frequent disturbance. Under frequent disturbance, many bacteria did not occupy the biofilm, suggesting that biofilm dwelling was not as beneficial under frequent versus intermediate disturbance. Given the ubiquity of disturbances in nature, these results suggest that they may play a major role in the evolution of social traits in microbes.

What can microbial genetics teach sociobiology?

Progress in our understanding of sociobiology has occurred with little knowledge of the genetic mechanisms that underlie social traits. However, several recent studies have described microbial genes that affect social traits, thereby bringing genetics to sociobiology. A key finding is that simple genetic changes can have marked social consequences, and mutations that affect cheating and recognition behaviors have been discovered. The study of these mutants confirms a central theoretical prediction of social evolution: that genetic relatedness promotes cooperation. Microbial genetics also provides an important new perspective: that the genome-to-phenome mapping of social organisms might be organized to constrain the evolution of social cheaters. This constraint can occur both through pleiotropic genes that link cheating to a personal cost and through the existence of phoenix genes, which rescue cooperative systems from selfish and destructive strategies. These new insights show the power of studying microorganisms to improve our understanding of the evolution of cooperation.

Aristotle's biopolitics: a defense of biological teleology against biological nihilism

Modern Darwinian biology seems to promote nihilism, for it seems to teach that there is no rationally discoverable standard in nature for giving meaning to life. The purpose of this article is to argue for a revival of Aristotle's biological teleology as a reasonable alternative to biological nihilism. The article begins with Edward Wilson's vain struggle against nihilism. Then it is argued that a teleological understanding of nature is assumed in the practice of medicine, as illustrated by one case from Oliver Sacks' neurological practice. The article then considers the importance of biological teleology for Aristotle's moral and political philosophy, and attention is given to some points of agreement and disagreement with contemporary sociobiologists. The main part of the article is then devoted to a defense of Aristotle's biology against the five objections that might be made by a Darwinian biologist. Finally, the article illustrates the practical implications of this issue for bioethics by considering the recent work of Engelhardt.

A compensation election for binary social choice

We report experimental results examining the properties of a bidding mechanism, the "Compensation Election," which is designed to implement a simple binary choice between two options. We may think of the group decision problem as a choice between a new rule and the status quo. The rule and the status quo are each common outcomes that apply across all individuals, but the value or cost that they induce on each individual differs according to each individual's circumstances: some gain, some lose, and others are unaffected by a change to the new from the old. Rather than casting votes, each subject submits a bid reflecting his willingness to pay to induce the group to select one option and the amount he wishes to be paid if the alternative option is selected. The Compensation Election chooses the option that receives the highest sum of bids. We find that, although the Compensation Election allows subjects to strategically bid above their value (or even for the option they do not prefer), such behavior is not the norm. We also find that subjects' bids more truthfully reveal their values when there are more bidders in the election.

The heritability of life history strategy: the K-factor, covitality, and personality

Archival data from the MIDUS survey (Brim et al., 2000), a nationally representative sample, on 309 MZ and 333 DZ twin pairs aged 25-74 years were used to test the psychometrics and behavioral genetics of life history strategy. We organized 253 of the originally administered 2,000 questions into 30 scales measuring life history traits (e.g., quality of family relationships and altruism towards kin), medical symptoms (e.g., thyroid problems), personality traits (e.g., neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness), and social background (e.g., financial security). A single higher-order factor, indicating a general life history strategy, composed of three lower-order factors, was replicated. Factor analyses were then performed on the genetic variance-covariance matrices. We found that (a) a single higher-order factor explained the preponderance of the genetic correlations among the scales and (b) this higher-order factor was itself 68 percent heritable and accounted for 82 percent of the genetic variance among the three component lower-order factors.

Toward an evolutionary forensic psychology

Most theories of crime have not explored intensively biological and especially evolutionary explanations for criminal behavior. Ellis presents a valuable new perspective that proposes that attention to physiological mechanisms shaped by evolutionary forces can provide insights into the causes of crime and sex differences in the patterns of crime. We discuss other theories and research relevant to Ellis' theory. We also propose that an evolutionary psychological perspective of crime will help to invigorate research and lead to a better understanding of criminality. An integrated evolutionary forensic psychology will help to explain sources of conflict between individuals, situations in which conflict leads to victimization, and victim defenses and coping mechanisms.

Sex, status, and criminality: a theoretical nexus

This article offers a theoretical explanation for relationships between social status and involvement in serious and persistent criminal behavior from an evolutionary perspective. The theory's central premise is that natural selection has produced females who bias their mating choices toward males who strive for status. This bias has resulted in males devoting greater time and energy to status striving (relative to females). To account for why nearly all "victimizing" forms of criminality are more common among males than among females, the theory asserts that status striving exists along a continuum of competitive/victimizing behavior. One end of this continuum is epitomized by crude (criminal) forms of the behavior that societies generally discourage and even punish. The other end consists of sophisticated (commercial) forms that societies tolerate and even encourage. According to the theory, most males begin to exhibit non-playful forms of competitive/victimizing behavior around the onset of puberty as they start their reproductive careers. Adolescent males with the greatest abilities to learn will transition quickly from crude forms of competitive/victimizing behavior to more sophisticated forms, while males who have the greatest difficulties learning will transition more slowly. A major deduction from the theory is that genes on the Y-chromosome must be affecting the brain in ways that promote status-striving behavior. This deduction needs empirical scrutiny, although it is consistent with evidence (a) that the Y-chromosome transforms would-be ovaries into testes, the latter being specialized organs for the production of testosterone, and (b) that testosterone alters brain functioning in ways that contribute to both status striving and criminality.

Required parental investment and mating patterns: a quantitative analysis in the context of evolutionarily stable strategies

Much social psychological research has been dedicated to understanding mating strategies from the standpoint of genetic-fitness payout (e.g., Simpson and Gangestad, 2000). The current work is designed to provide a coherent, quantitative model for predicting different classes of mating strategies in both males and females. Specifically, the framework developed in this paper is an elaboration of Dawkins' (1989) quantitative assessment of different male and female mating strategies. Dawkins suggests that the prevalence of different strategies employed should be predictable in terms of evolutionary stable strategies. In the current work, a quantitative analysis predicting the prevalence of different mating strategies within each sex was conducted. The mathematical functions derived suggest that variability in the costs associated with raising offspring affects the expected prevalence of mating strategies differently for males and females. According to the present model, variability in female strategies should be less affected by changes in parental investment (PI) than variability in male strategies. Important predictions regarding male and female mating strategies across cultures are discussed.

[Adaptivity of social systems: the problem for scientific research]

The notion of adaptive evolution of social systems as of a real process of selection of the properties of such systems implies group selection. But strong evidences of effective group selection seem impossible, at least in vertebrates. However, understanding the origin of social systems adaptivity based on individual selection is difficult, as well, without analyzing the proximal mechanisms of the formation of such systems. I suppose that social systems change due to changes of individual features that underlie the proximal mechanisms of the system formation. These features are the characteristics of neurophysiological and hormonal regulatory mechanisms. They are strongly associated with intrinsic biochemical processes and are coded in the genome. Thus, the evolution of social systems is the evolution of their proximal mechanisms. At the same time, the specificity of neurophysiological and hormonal regulation determines not only social interactions, but also the individual behaviour of animals. The most important characteristics of life history, such as the regime of activity, foraging strategy, etc., are strongly affected by the same regulatory mechanisms. This view is useful for understanding the relations combining many features into an integrated and adaptive species-specific life form. I suppose that such forms emerged as evolutionary consequences of changes in regulatory mechanisms adaptive to specific environment. Thus, we have as substantial reasons to discuss adaptations of social systems to ecological features as to discuss ecological features adapted to particular social systems. The species-specificity of regulatory mechanisms is probably based on different kinds of evolutionary choice between the rapidity and the perfection of adaptation, between flexibility and stability, and between sensibility and resistibility. I think that this choice depends largely on the predictability of the environment. The less predictable it is, the more it increases the selective value of sensibility, flexibility, and rapidity of evolution. On the contrary, stable and predictable environment stimulates less rapid but more perfect adaptations. Such choices consolidate in the genome during evolution as specific features of neurophysiological and hormonal regulation systems. These specific features, in their turn, determine ecological, behavioural, and physiological species-specificity. From this point of view, evolutionary changes in social systems can be readily perceived as consequences of the selection of individuals, promoting optimal properties under particular conditional features of regulation systems. The boundary condition for this model is the absence of specificity of the characteristics of regulation systems to different forms of stress. This condition needs to be considered closely.

The biology and evolution of music: A comparative perspective

Studies of the biology of music (as of language) are highly interdisciplinary and demand the integration of diverse strands of evidence. In this paper, I present a comparative perspective on the biology and evolution of music, stressing the value of comparisons both with human language, and with those animal communication systems traditionally termed "song". A comparison of the "design features" of music with those of language reveals substantial overlap, along with some important differences. Most of these differences appear to stem from semantic, rather than structural, factors, suggesting a shared formal core of music and language. I next review various animal communication systems that appear related to human music, either by analogy (bird and whale "song") or potential homology (great ape bimanual drumming). A crucial comparative distinction is between learned, complex signals (like language, music and birdsong) and unlearned signals (like laughter, ape calls, or bird calls). While human vocalizations clearly build upon an acoustic and emotional foundation shared with other primates and mammals, vocal learning has evolved independently in our species since our divergence with chimpanzees. The convergent evolution of vocal learning in other species offers a powerful window into psychological and neural constraints influencing the evolution of complex signaling systems (including both song and speech), while ape drumming presents a fascinating potential homology with human instrumental music. I next discuss the archeological data relevant to music evolution, concluding on the basis of prehistoric bone flutes that instrumental music is at least 40,000 years old, and perhaps much older. I end with a brief review of adaptive functions proposed for music, concluding that no one selective force (e.g., sexual selection) is adequate to explaining all aspects of human music. I suggest that questions about the past function of music are unlikely to be answered definitively and are thus a poor choice as a research focus for biomusicology. In contrast, a comparative approach to music promises rich dividends for our future understanding of the biology and evolution of music.