Detection of oligonucleotide-ligand complexes by ESI-MS (DOLCE-MS) as a component of high throughput screening

Targeting RNA with small molecules: lessons learned from Xist RNA

Although more than 98% of the human genome is noncoding, nearly all drugs on the market target one of about 700 disease-related proteins. However, an increasing number of diseases are now being attributed to noncoding RNA and the ability to target them would vastly expand the chemical space for drug development. We recently devised a screening strategy based upon affinity-selection mass spectrometry and succeeded in identifying bioactive compounds for the noncoding RNA prototype, Xist. One such compound, termed X1, has drug-like properties and binds specifically to the RepA motif of Xist in vitro and in vivo. Small-angle X-ray scattering analysis reveals that X1 changes the conformation of RepA in solution, thereby explaining the displacement of cognate interacting protein factors (PRC2 and SPEN) and inhibition of X-chromosome inactivation. In this Perspective, we discuss lessons learned from these proof-of-concept experiments and suggest that RNA can be systematically targeted by drug-like compounds to disrupt RNA structure and function.

Mass Spectrometry of Nucleic Acid Noncovalent Complexes

Nucleic acids have been among the first targets for antitumor drugs and antibiotics. With the unveiling of new biological roles in regulation of gene expression, specific DNA and RNA structures have become very attractive targets, especially when the corresponding proteins are undruggable. Biophysical assays to assess target structure as well as ligand binding stoichiometry, affinity, specificity, and binding modes are part of the drug development process. Mass spectrometry offers unique advantages as a biophysical method owing to its ability to distinguish each stoichiometry present in a mixture. In addition, advanced mass spectrometry approaches (reactive probing, fragmentation techniques, ion mobility spectrometry, ion spectroscopy) provide more detailed information on the complexes. Here, we review the fundamentals of mass spectrometry and all its particularities when studying noncovalent nucleic acid structures, and then review what has been learned thanks to mass spectrometry on nucleic acid structures, self-assemblies (e.g., duplexes or G-quadruplexes), and their complexes with ligands.

Target-Directed Approaches for Screening Small Molecules against RNA Targets

RNA molecules have a variety of cellular functions that can drive disease pathologies. They are without a doubt one of the most intriguing yet controversial small-molecule drug targets. The ability to widely target RNA with small molecules could be revolutionary, once the right tools, assays, and targets are selected, thereby defining which biomolecules are targetable and what constitutes drug-like small molecules. Indeed, approaches developed over the past 5-10 years have changed the face of small molecule-RNA targeting by addressing historic concerns regarding affinity, selectivity, and structural dynamics. Presently, selective RNA-protein complex stabilizing drugs such as branaplam and risdiplam are in clinical trials for the modulation of SMN2 splicing, compounds identified from phenotypic screens with serendipitous outcomes. Fully developing RNA as a druggable target will require a target engagement-driven approach, and evolving chemical collections will be important for the industrial development of this class of target. In this review we discuss target-directed approaches that can be used to identify RNA-binding compounds and the chemical knowledge we have today of small-molecule RNA binders.

RNA-ALIS: Methodology for screening soluble RNAs as small molecule targets using ALIS affinity-selection mass spectrometry

Recent advances resulting from the completion of the human genome have shown that RNA has the promise to be a target for small molecule drugs, and therefore represents a previously unexploited class of targets for novel human therapeutics. We recently reported the adaptation of an affinity selection mass spectrometry screening technique, termed ALIS (Automatic Ligand Identification System), to screen and characterize a variety of RNA species from both prokaryotic and eukaryotic sources. We demonstrated that the ALIS technique, which had previously been used for protein targets, was also compatible for screening, ranking and characterizing small molecule ligands for RNA targets. We present here a detailed description of the use of ALIS for screening and characterizing ligands for RNA and discuss issues of validating and testing RNA for use in the ALIS system. We have also further elaborated on issues of RNA stability and testing in the ALIS system and demonstrate that the affinity-selection screening system has the potential to be a general solution for label-free screening and characterization of small molecule drug candidates for RNA targets.

MS methods to study macromolecule-ligand interaction: Applications in drug discovery

The interaction of small compounds (i.e. ligands) with macromolecules or macromolecule assemblies (i.e. targets) is the mechanism of action of most of the drugs available today. Mass spectrometry is a popular technique for the interrogation of macromolecule-ligand interactions and therefore is also widely used in drug discovery and development. Thanks to its versatility, mass spectrometry is used for multiple purposes such as biomarker screening, identification of the mechanism of action, ligand structure optimization or toxicity assessment. The evolution and automation of the instruments now allows the development of high throughput methods with high sensitivity and a minimized false discovery rate. Herein, all these approaches are described with a focus on the methods for studying macromolecule-ligand interaction aimed at defining the structure-activity relationships of drug candidates, along with their mechanism of action, metabolism and toxicity.

May the Best Molecule Win: Competition ESI Mass Spectrometry

Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry has become invaluable in the characterization of macromolecular biological systems such as nucleic acids and proteins. Recent advances in the field of mass spectrometry and the soft conditions characteristic of electrospray ionization allow for the investigation of non-covalent interactions among large biomolecules and ligands. Modulation of genetic processes through the use of small molecule inhibitors with the DNA minor groove is gaining attention as a potential therapeutic approach. In this review, we discuss the development of a competition method using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry to probe the interactions of multiple DNA sequences with libraries of minor groove binding molecules. Such an approach acts as a high-throughput screening method to determine important information including the stoichiometry, binding mode, cooperativity, and relative binding affinity. In addition to small molecule-DNA complexes, we highlight other applications in which competition mass spectrometry has been used. A competitive approach to simultaneously investigate complex interactions promises to be a powerful tool in the discovery of small molecule inhibitors with high specificity and for specific, important DNA sequences.

DNA-Protected Silver Clusters for Nanophotonics

DNA-protected silver clusters (Ag_N-DNA) possess unique fluorescence properties that depend on the specific DNA template that stabilizes the cluster. They exhibit peak emission wavelengths that range across the visible and near-IR spectrum. This wide color palette, combined with low toxicity, high fluorescence quantum yields of some clusters, low synthesis costs, small cluster sizes and compatibility with DNA are enabling many applications that employ Ag_N-DNA. Here we review what is known about the underlying composition and structure of Ag_N-DNA, and how these relate to the optical properties of these fascinating, hybrid biomolecule-metal cluster nanomaterials. We place Ag_N-DNA in the general context of ligand-stabilized metal clusters and compare their properties to those of other noble metal clusters stabilized by small molecule ligands. The methods used to isolate pure Ag_N-DNA for analysis of composition and for studies of solution and single-emitter optical properties are discussed. We give a brief overview of structurally sensitive chiroptical studies, both theoretical and experimental, and review experiments on bringing silver clusters of distinct size and color into nanoscale DNA assemblies. Progress towards using DNA scaffolds to assemble multi-cluster arrays is also reviewed.

Evaluation of DNA/Ligand interactions by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) has enabled the detection and characterization of DNA/ligand complexes, including evaluation of both relative binding affinities and selectivities of DNA-interactive ligands. The noncovalent complexes that are transferred from the solution to the gas phase retain the signature of the native species, thus allowing the use of MS to screen DNA/ligand complexes, reveal the stoichiometries of the complexes, and provide insight into the nature of the interactions. Ligands that bind to DNA via metal-mediated modes and those that bind to unusual DNA structures, such as quadruplexes, are amenable to ESI. Chemical probe methods applied to DNA/ligand complexes with ESI-MS detection afford information about ligand-binding sites and conformational changes of DNA that occur upon ligand binding.

Interactions of sulfur-containing acridine ligands with DNA by ESI-MS

The alkylating proficiency of sulfur-containing mustards may be increased by using an acridine moiety to guide the sulfur mustard to its cellular target. In this study, the interactions of a new series of sulfur-containing acridine ligands, some that also function as alkylating mustards, with DNA were evaluated by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Relative binding affinities were estimated from the ESI-MS data based on the fraction of bound DNA for DNA/acridine mixtures. The extent of binding observed for the series of sulfur-containing acridines was similar, presumably because the intercalating acridine moiety was identical. Upon infrared multi-photon dissociation (IRMPD) of the resulting oligonucleotide/sulfur-containing acridine complexes, ejection of the ligand was the dominant pathway for most of the complexes. However, for AS4, an acridine sulfide mustard, and AN1, an acridine nitrogen mustard, strand separation with the ligand remaining on one of the single strands was observed. At higher irradiation times, a variety of sequence ions were observed, some retaining the AS4/AN1 ligand, which was indicative of covalent binding.

Chemical stability and reactivity of deprotonated oligonucleotides (DNA) in the gas phase: protonation and solvation with hydrogen bromide

Selected deprotonated oligodeoxynucleotides generated by electrospray ionization were exposed to a variety of neutral molecules in the gas phase at room temperature in flowing helium gas at 0.35 Torr. Single-stranded [AGTCTG-nH]n- and single- and double-stranded [GCATGC-nH]n- anions were found to be remarkably unreactive with strong oxidants (O3, O2, N2O) and potential intercalators (benzene, pyridine, toluene, and quinoxaline). Hydration also was observed to be inefficient. However, [AGTCTG-nH]n- anions with n=2, 3, 4, and 5 were seen to be sequentially protonated and/or hydrobrominated with HBr (but not damaged) and displayed an interesting "end effect" against protonation. Measurements are provided for the rate coefficients of reaction and the efficiencies of protonation. These experimental results point toward the exciting prospect of measuring the intrinsic chemistry of other bare DNA-like anions, including double-stranded oligonucleotide anions in the gas phase at room temperature.

ESI-MS characterization of a novel pyrrole-inosine nucleoside that interacts with guanine bases

Based on binding studies undertaken by electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry, a synthetic pyrrole-inosine nucleoside, 1, capable of forming an extended three-point Hoogsteen-type hydrogen-bonding interaction with guanine, is shown to form specific complexes with two different quadruplex DNA structures [dTG(4)T](4) and d(T(2)G(4))(4) as well as guanine-rich duplex DNA. The binding interactions of two other analogs were evaluated in order to unravel the structural features that contribute to specific DNA recognition. The importance of the Hoogsteen interactions was confirmed through the absence of specific binding when the pyrrole NH hydrogen-bonding site was blocked or removed. While 2, with a large blocking group, was not found to interact with virtually any form of DNA, 3, with the pyrrole functionality missing, was found to interact non-specifically with several types of DNA. The specific binding of 1 to guanine-rich DNA emphasizes the necessity of careful ligand design for specific sequence recognition.

Evaluation of relative DNA binding affinities of anthrapyrazoles by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

Binding interactions of a new series of anthrapyrazoles (APs) with DNA were evaluated by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Relative binding affinities were estimated from the ESI-MS data based on the fraction of bound DNA for DNA/anthrapyrazole mixtures, and they show a correlation to the shift in melting point of the DNA measured from a previous study. Minimal sequence specificity was observed for the series of anthrapyrazoles. Upon collisionally activated dissociation of the duplex/anthrapyrazole complexes, typically ejection of the ligand was the dominant pathway for most of the complexes. However, for complexes containing AP2 or mitoxantrone, strand separation with the ligand remaining on one of the single strands was observed, indicative of a different binding mode or stronger binding.

Screening of threading bis-intercalators binding to duplex DNA by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

The DNA binding of novel threading bis-intercalators V1, trans-D1, and cis-C1, which contain two naphthalene diimide (NDI) intercalation units connected by a scaffold, was evaluated using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and DNAse footprinting techniques. ESI-MS experiments confirmed that V1, the ligand containing the -Gly3-Lys- peptide scaffold, binds to a DNA duplex containing the 5'-GGTACC-3' specific binding site identified in previous NMR-based studies. The ligand formed complexes with a ligand/DNA binding stoichiometry of 1:1, even when there was excess ligand in solution. Trans-D1 and cis-C1 are new ligands containing a rigid spiro-tricyclic scaffold in the trans- and cis- orientations, respectively. Preliminary DNAse footprinting experiments identified possible specific binding sites of 5'-CAGTGA-5' for trans-D1 and 5'-GGTACC-3' for cis-C1. ESI-MS experiments revealed that both ligands bound to DNA duplexes containing the respective specific binding sequences, with cis-C1 exhibiting the most extensive binding based on a higher fraction of bound DNA value. Cis-C1 formed complexes with a dominant 1:1 binding stoichiometry, whereas trans-D1 was able to form 2:1 complexes at ligand/DNA molar ratios >or=1 which is suggestive of nonspecific binding. Collisional activated dissociation (CAD) experiments indicate that DNA complexes containing V1, trans-D1, and cis-C1 have a unique fragmentation pathway, which was also observed for complexes containing the commercially available bis-intercalator echinomycin, as a result of similar binding interactions, marked by intercalation in addition to hydrogen bonding by the scaffold with the DNA major or minor groove.

Applications of ESI-MS in drug discovery: interrogation of noncovalent complexes

For many years, analytical mass spectrometry has had numerous supporting roles in the drug development process, including the assessment of compound purity; quantitation of absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion; and compound-specific pharmacokinetic analyses. More recently, mass spectrometry has emerged as an effective technique for identifying lead compounds on the basis of the characterization of noncovalent ligand-macromolecular target interactions. This approach offers several attractive properties for screening applications in drug discovery compared with other strategies, including the small quantities of target and ligands required, and the capacity to study ligands or targets without having to label them. Here, we review the application of electrospray ionization mass spectrometry to the interrogation of noncovalent complexes, highlighting examples from drug discovery efforts aimed at a range of target classes.

Stability analysis for double-stranded DNA oligomers and their noncovalent complexes with drugs by laser spray

Laser spray, which is a newly developed ionization technique, can characterize the stability of noncovalent complexes in the solution phase. By using this advantage, laser spray has been applied to probe the intrinsic stability of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) sequences and their binding affinities with various drugs in the solution phase. Systematic experiments were carried out using six 16-mer and three 22-mer dsDNA oligomers, together with the complexes of the 16-mer dsDNA with minor groove binders: berenil, Hoechst 33342, DAPI, and netropsin. Dissociation curves for each dsDNA or each complex were plotted as a function of laser power. The laser power (E50%), where 50% of each dsDNA or each complex was dissociated, was compared with its melting temperature (Tm) determined by UV spectroscopy. Linear correlations between E50% and Tm were obtained not only for the dsDNA oligomers (correlation factor r = 0.9835) but also for the 16-mer dsDNA complexes with minor groove binders (r = 0.9966). In addition, laser spray has successfully clarified the binding affinities of a 16-mer dsDNA with two intercalators: daunomycin and nogalamycin. In the case of the dsDNA-daunomycin complex, by changing the molar ratio of dsDNA : drug from 1 : 1 to 1 : 5, the concentration-dependent stability of the complex was confirmed by laser spray. The present results demonstrate that laser spray mass spectrometry can be a powerful and convenient method to investigate the relative binding affinities of dsDNA-ligand complexes in the solution phase, which could be applied to the early stage of high-throughput screening of drugs targeting for dsDNA.

Evaluation of binding of perylene diimide and benzannulated perylene diimide ligands to DNA by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and spectroscopic studies in solution were used to evaluate the self-association, G-quadruplex DNA binding, and selectivity of a series of perylene diimides (PDIs) (PIPER, Tel01, Tel11, Tel12, and Tel18) or benzannulated perylene diimide ligands (Tel34 and Tel32). Fluorescence and resonance light scattering spectra of Tel01, Tel12, Tel32, and Tel34 reveal that these analogs undergo self-association in solution. UV-Vis and fluorescence titrations with G-quadruplex, duplex, or single-stranded DNA demonstrate that all the analogs, with the exception of Tel32, bind to G-quadruplex DNA, with those PDIs that are self-associated in solution showing the highest degree of selectivity for binding G-quadruplex DNA. Parallel ESI-MS analysis of the stoichiometries demonstrates the ability of the ligands, with the exception of Tel32, to bind to G-quadruplex DNA. While most ligands show major 1:1 and 2:1 binding stoichiometries as expected in the case of end-stacking, interestingly, three of the most quadruplex-selective ligands show a different behavior. Tel01 forms 3:1 complexes, while Tel12 and Tel32 only form 1:1 complexes. Collisional activation dissociation patterns are compatible with ligand binding to G-quadruplex DNA via stacking on the ends of the terminal G-tetrads. Experiments with duplex and single strand DNA were performed to assess the binding selectivities of the ligands. PIPER, Tel11, and Tel18 demonstrated extensive complexation with duplex DNA, while Tel11 and Tel18 bound to single strand DNA, confirming the lack of selectivity of these two ligands. Our results indicate that Tel01, Tel12, and Tel34 are the most selective for G-quadruplex DNA.

Automated nano-electrospray mass spectrometry for protein-ligand screening by noncovalent interaction applied to human H-FABP and A-FABP

A method for ligand screening by automated nano-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (nano-ESI/MS) is described. The core of the system consisted of a chip-based platform for automated sample delivery from a 96-well plate and subsequent analysis based on noncovalent interactions. Human fatty acid binding protein, H-FABP (heart) and A-FABP (adipose), with small potential ligands was analyzed. The technique has been compared with a previously reported method based on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and excellent correlation with the found hits was obtained. In the current MS screening method, the cycle time per sample was 1.1 min, which is approximately 50 times faster than NMR for single compounds and approximately 5 times faster for compound mixtures. High reproducibility was achieved, and the protein consumption was in the range of 88 to 100 picomoles per sample. Futhermore, a novel protocol for preparation of A-FABP without the natural ligand is presented. The described screening approach is suitable for ligand screening very early in the drug discovery process before conventional high-throughput screens (HTS) are developed and/or used as a secondary screening for ligands identified by HTS.

On-line microdialysis for enhanced resolution and sensitivity during electrospray mass spectrometry of non-covalent complexes and competitive binding studies

Many proteins and macromolecules easily form metal adduct ions which impairs their analysis by mass spectrometry. The present study describes how the formation of undesired adducts can be minimized by on-line microdialysis for non-covalent binding studies of macromolecules with low molecular mass ligands with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). The technique was indispensable for protein-ligand studies due to reduction of unwanted adduct ions, and thus gave excellent resolution and a sensitivity improvement of at least 5 times. The core of the analytical system was a modified microdialysis device, which was operated in countercurrent mode. A novel technique based on microdialysis for competitive binding studies is also presented. The non-covalent complex between a protein and a ligand was formed in the sample vial prior to analysis. The complex was injected into an on-line microdialysis system where a competitive ligand was administered in the dialysis buffer outside of the fiber. The second ligand competitively displaced the first ligand through transport via the wall of the dialysis fiber, and the intact complexes were detected by ESI-MS.