The Construction of the Adolescent Male Body through Sport

The Relationship between Exercise Re-Participation Intention Based on the Sports-Socialization Process: YouTube Sports Content Intervention

Few studies have used a quantitative research methodology to examine the socialization process model, and such studies were conducted to verify a new model by intervening in the variables of YouTube sports content. To understand this process, we tested the moderated mediating effect by intervening in YouTube sports content based on the sports socialization process model. We recruited 274 participants from the Jeju Residents' Jeju Sports Festival, Korea. The PROCESS Macro program was performed to test the research hypotheses. The findings indicate that social support had a significant effect on re-participation intention. Social support had a significant mediation effect on exercise interruption intention, re-participation intention, and exercise performance satisfaction. Furthermore, through the relationship between social support and exercise interruption intention, YouTube sports content showed a significant interaction of re-participation intention in exercise. These results extend sports socialization theory by discovering a new model that explains the relationship between the sports socialization process and YouTube sports content. In addition, it will provide a basis for delivering educational information to the public so that they can recognize the importance of physical activity and exercise skills.

Sport Participation in Early and Middle Adolescence: The Interplay Between Self-Perception and Psychobiosocial Experiences in Predicting Burnout Symptoms

Adolescence is characterized by pubertal physical changes, cognitive development, and modified social expectations. Adolescent athletes often enter a more challenging stage of athletic development associated with increased specialization, and become vulnerable to feelings of burnout. It is therefore important to consider intrapersonal psychological factors that can improve sport participation experiences and prevent burnout. Accordingly, the aim of the current study was to examine the interplay between self-perceptions and emotion-related (i.e., psychobiosocial) experiences (e.g., feeling confident, focused, determined, physically charged, and skillful) in predicting burnout symptoms in adolescents. A sample of 12–14-year-olds (n = 338, 176 girls and 162 boys; Mage = 13.42, SD = 1.12) and 15–17-year-olds (n = 302, 142 girls and 160 boys; Mage = 15.78, SD = 1.17), participating in individual or team sports, were involved in a cross-sectional study to assess positive and negative self-perceptions, functional and dysfunctional psychobiosocial experiences, and burnout symptoms (i.e., emotional and physical exhaustion, reduced sense of accomplishment, sport devaluation). Path analysis results suggest that higher scores on global physical self-perception, self-esteem, and sport competence were associated with lower burnout symptoms, while higher scores on social physique anxiety were associated with higher scores on sport devaluation. Moreover, self-esteem and sport competence were shown to have significant indirect effects on burnout dimensions via functional psychobiosocial experiences. Differences by gender (p < 0.001) and by age category (p < 0.001) in the variable scores were also found. Compared to girls, boys reported higher scores on competence, functional psychobiosocial experiences, global physical self-perception, self-esteem, emotional and physical exhaustion, and lower scores on social physique anxiety. Compared to 12–14-year-olds, 15–17-year-olds reported lower scores on global physical self-perception and self-esteem, and higher scores on social physique anxiety, reduced sense of accomplishment, and sport devaluation. This study adds to the literature on burnout by considering the role of intrapersonal factors (i.e., global physical self-perception, self-esteem, sport competence, and social anxiety) in predicting burnout symptoms in adolescent athletes, and the mediating effects of psychobiosocial experiences. From an applied perspective, sport coaches should implement strategies to foster positive self-perceptions, promote pleasant psychobiosocial experiences, and prevent burnout.

Psychometric properties of a Farsi translation of the Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS) in Iranian adolescents

The 7-item Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS; Alleva et al., 2017) measures an individual's appreciation of their body for what it can do and is capable of doing (i.e., functionality appreciation). However, few studies have assessed the psychometric properties of the FAS in non-English speaking populations and in younger age groups. Here, we examined the psychometric properties of a novel Farsi translation of the FAS in Iranian adolescent girls and boys. A sample of 828 Iranian adolescents completed the FAS alongside the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory-II. Participants were randomly split into a first split-half for exploratory factor analysis (EFA) or a second split-half for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The EFA broadly supported a 1-dimensional model of FAS scores, although one item had low item-factor loadings. The CFA indicated that both the 6- and 7-item models had adequate fit. In further analyses, we found that the 7-item unidimensional model was invariant across gender and that higher FAS scores were significantly associated with higher self-esteem and lower depressive symptoms, indicative of convergent validity. These results provide evidence that the Farsi translation of the FAS is reliable and valid for use in Iranian adolescent girls and boys.

An Inductive Analysis of Young Adults' Conceptions of Femininity and Masculinity and Comparison to Established Gender Inventories

This study provides an analysis of the content of feminine and masculine characteristics/behaviors described in writing by 366 young women and 289 young men from the U.S. Emergent characteristics/behaviors were placed into domains. For both femininity and masculinity, the domains of "physical differences related to sex" and "emphasized physical differences" emerged. For masculinity, additional domains were: "activities and interests focused on the body," "powerful or oriented toward power," and "emotion-control or emotionally-limited." For femininity, additional domains were "lacking power," "orientation to other people," and "emotional." We then compared the characteristics/behaviors and domains we discovered to gender inventories that are commonly used in the contemporary period. The masculine domains focused on physical differences, activities, and interests that emerged from the present study are mostly absent from these masculinity inventories. The domains focused on power and restricted emotion are evident in these inventories, but these inventories do not cover all of the characteristics within our domains. The feminine domains that emerged from the present study are more often covered in these inventories, but some of the specific feminine characteristics we found are not evident in these inventories. Results are discussed in terms of gender role theory, gender inequality, and potential application for qualitative and quantitative inquiries into the construction of gender.

Predictors of One-Year Change in How Youth Perceive Their Weight

Overall, perceptions of being at "about the right weight" appear advantageous for youth physical and mental health, regardless of BMI classification, whereas perceptions at either extreme (overweight or underweight) may negatively impact health behaviours and mental health. Instead of considering weight misperceptions as problematic, some researchers have proposed that underestimations of weight status may offer resiliency among individuals with overweight or obesity. Promoting "about right" WPs and preventing change to overweight or underweight perceptions may offer an effective public health strategy for supporting youth health over time. However, limited prospective evidence exists on factors that shape perceptions of weight status over time. The current study examined modifiable predictors of one-year change in weight perception among youths. We used 2-year linked data of 18,112 grade 9-12 students from Year 3 (Y₃:2014-2015) and Year 4 (Y₄:2015-2016) of the COMPASS study. Generalized Estimating Equation models tested screen use, physical activity, and bullying victimization as predictors of change from perceptions of "about the right weight" to "overweight" or "underweight" perceptions, adjusting for Y₃ covariates (body mass index, ethnicity, and grade) and school cluster. Results support the value of team sports among females and resistance exercise among males as protective against changes to overweight or underweight perceptions over one year. Also, various forms of bullying victimization predicted overweight perceptions in males and females. Watching TV/movies or messaging/texting for over 2 hours/day was associated with overweight and underweight perceptions, respectively, in females only. Playing video/computer games for over 2 hours/day was associated with overweight perceptions in males and underweight perceptions in females. Findings support the potential of bullying prevention, limiting certain screen use, and supporting engagement in team sports for females and resistance exercise for males as strategies to maintain perceptions of being at "about the right weight."

Body Dissatisfaction, Perceptions of Competence, and Lesson Content in Physical Education

BACKGROUND

Significant proportions of young people experience body dissatisfaction, which has implications for psychological and physical well-being. Lesson content and perceived competence may be important variables for the experience of body dissatisfaction, yet these have been underexplored in physical education. The aim of this cross-sectional study is to identify the relationships between body dissatisfaction and perceptions of competence, and to explore whether body dissatisfaction depends on lesson content.

METHODS

A paper-and-pencil questionnaire was completed by 446 (210 boys, 236 girls) 13- to 14-year-old pupils from 37 physical education classes. The questionnaire assessed body dissatisfaction and perceived competence in physical education. Lesson content was also recorded. Twenty-nine of the classes were engaged in team activities, eg, ball games. Eight classes were engaged in individual activities, eg, fitness.

RESULTS

Multilevel analysis identified a significant negative association between body dissatisfaction and perceptions of competence in physical education. Lesson content did not significantly predict variations in body dissatisfaction scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Teachers should focus on enhancing pupils' perceptions of competence in physical education to support the development of body satisfaction.

Objectifying Women's Bodies Is Acceptable from an Intimate Perpetrator, at Least for Female Sexists

Objectification of the female body is generating much research. Nevertheless, this has revealed little about whether women's evaluations depend on the level of psychological intimacy with the perpetrator of that objectification. Intimacy theory predicts that objectifying comments would seem more acceptable coming from a close partner, especially for sexist women. The present study begins to fill these gaps by analyzing responses from 301 heterosexual/bisexual adult women in the United States (M age = 37.02, range = 18-72) to appearance and sexual body comments made by four different male perpetrators: strangers, colleagues, friends, or partners. Measures assessed women's perceptions of objectification, as well as reported enjoyment of these comments. As long as they were not negative, comments from heterosexual partners were perceived as the least objectifying and enjoyed the most; comments from colleagues, strangers, and friends were linked with greater objectification and less enjoyment. Additionally, sexist attitudes toward men and women-but more clearly toward men-linked with objectification and enjoyment. Future research directions and practical implications are discussed.

Sexual orientation, bullying for being labeled gay or bisexual, and steroid use among US adolescent boys

Use of anabolic-androgenic steroids is a public health concern for adolescent boys. This study examined bullying based on being labeled gay/bisexual and steroid use among US adolescent boys, including sexual orientation disparities. Data from 2660 boys from the 2015 Youth Behavior Risk Survey were used. Among heterosexual boys, steroid use was higher among those who reported being bullied due to being labeled gay or bisexual. No such relationship existed among non-heterosexual boys. The results speak to the need to address issues of masculinity in clinical work with boys and young men.

Children’s body image and social comparisons with peers and the media

Social comparisons are related to the development of body dissatisfaction among adolescents and adults, yet this relationship remains relatively unexamined among children. This study examines children’s peer and media-related social comparisons, and how this impacts on their body image. Children aged 8–10 years completed interviews (17 girls and 19 boys in individual interviews, and 16 girls and 16 boys in focus groups). Analyses revealed that appearance-related comparisons were more common among girls, whereas sports/ability-related comparisons were more common for boys. In addition, boys viewed media comparisons as inspiring, whereas girls reported negative emotions. Implications for future research and prevention programmes are discussed.

The source and impact of appearance teasing: an examination by sex and weight status among early adolescents from the Czech Republic

BACKGROUND

Some adolescents are victims of negative appearance-related feedback, and this may have lasting adverse effects on their self-evaluation. The aim of this study was to examine the frequency and impact of appearance teasing across sex and weight status.

METHODS

The participants were 570 Czech adolescents (47.9% girls) evaluated at age 13 during the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood. Instruments used were body mass index and an adapted version of the Physical Experiences Survey that measures appearance teasing sources (parents, peers, among others), body part teased, and the impact of teasing. Chi-square test and multivariate analyses of variance were conducted to compare groups by sex and weight status. Logistic regression was then used for adjusted analyses.

RESULTS

Girls were more likely to report appearance teasing than boys. Overweight adolescents, both girls and boys, were more likely to be teased than non-overweight adolescents. Overweight adolescents compared with non-overweight adolescents reported higher levels of impact of body-related teasing.

CONCLUSIONS

Czech adolescents continue to adopt the societal standards of Western countries, stigmatizing overweight peers. This may affect more obese adolescents. Future research has to evaluate different sources of appearance-related teasing. Interventions in schools are suitable for the reduction of appearance-related prejudices.

Validation of a six-item male body image concerns scale (MBICS)

Elevated body image concerns may be a risk factor for eating disorders among males and contribute to a range of other mental health problems. This study tested a 6-item measure of general male body image concerns in two studies with adolescent males ages 14-18 (total N = 122). The measure showed strong convergent validity, scale score reliability, and test-retest reliability, and was significantly correlated with the number of episodes of binge eating in the past month. A short scale will relieve participant burden and provide a useful research tool for studies with males at risk for or with eating disorders.

A qualitative study of preadolescent boys' and girls' body image: gendered ideals and sociocultural influences

This qualitative study examined preadolescent boys' and girls' body ideals, and peer and media factors that shape these ideals. Sixty-eight children aged 8-10 participated in semi-structured interviews: 19 boys and 17 girls in individual interviews and 16 boys and 16 girls in eight group interviews. Techniques from grounded theory were used to analyze the data. Findings demonstrated that fitness was an important element of boys' and girls' body ideals. For boys the emphasis was on sport, and this was promoted by their peer interactions and the sportsmen they admired. For girls the focus was on looking good, and this was reinforced by their peer conversations, and the actresses and singers they admired. Focus groups further highlighted how peers both reinforced media messages, yet also helped children critique media messages. Implications are discussed for prevention programs that need to be specifically tailored for boys and girls.

Promoting fit bodies, healthy eating and physical activity among Indigenous Australian men: a study protocol

BACKGROUND

Overall the physical health of Indigenous men is among the worst in Australia. Research has indicated that modifiable lifestyle factors, such as poor nutrition and physical inactivity, appear to contribute strongly to these poor health conditions. To effectively develop and implement strategies to improve the health of Australia's Indigenous peoples, a greater understanding is needed of how Indigenous men perceive health, and how they view and care for their bodies. Further, a more systematic understanding of how sociocultural factors affect their health attitudes and behaviours is needed. This article presents the study protocol of a community-based investigation into the factors surrounding the health and body image of Indigenous Australian men.

METHODS AND DESIGN

The study will be conducted in a collaborative manner with Indigenous Australian men using a participatory action research framework. Men will be recruited from three locations around Australia (metropolitan, regional, and rural) and interviewed to understand their experiences and perspectives on a number of issues related to health and health behaviour. The information that is collected will be analysed using modified grounded theory and thematic analysis. The results will then be used to develop and implement community events in each location to provide feedback on the findings to the community, promote health enhancing strategies, and determine future action and collaboration.

DISCUSSION

This study will explore both risk and protective factors that affect the health of Indigenous Australian men. This knowledge will be disseminated to the wider Indigenous community and can be used to inform future health promotion strategies. The expected outcome of this study is therefore an increased understanding of health and health change in Indigenous Australian men, the development of strategies that promote healthy eating and positive patterns of physical activity and, in the longer term, more effective and culturally-appropriate interventions to improve health.

Seeing the beauty in everyday people: a qualitative study of young Australians' opinions on body image, the mass media and models

While governments have called for greater body size diversity in media imagery to promote positive body image and prevent disordered eating, the fashion and advertising industries often argue that average-size models do not appeal to consumers. Focus groups were conducted with 76 young Australian women and men to provide a previously neglected consumer perspective on this debate. Thematic analysis identified dissatisfaction with the restricted range of body sizes, and the objectification of women, in media imagery. Participants indicated a desire for change and positive reactions to average-size models in advertising, but also suggested barriers to their increased use, including concerns about the promotion of obesity. The results suggest that there is some consumer support for increased body size diversity in media imagery. Consumer and industry barriers, however, will need to be addressed in the future if this is to be an effective public health intervention to promote positive body image.

Body image, weight loss and muscle building among Tongan adolescents in Tonga and New Zealand

This study examined body image and associated behaviours among 48 adolescents (24 males, 24 females) in Tonga, as well as 48 Tongan adolescents (24 males, 24 females) living in New Zealand (NZ). There was a lack of focus on body weight and shape among adolescents in both countries. Males evidenced a high focus on muscles. Females wanted to lose weight and obtain a soft round body. There were very few differences in the body image or body change strategies of Tongan adolescents in Tonga or NZ. Sociocultural messages need to be explored further in order to better understand these findings.

What characterizes early adolescents with a positive body image? A qualitative investigation of Swedish girls and boys

The aim of the present study was to investigate positive body image during adolescence. Semi-structured interviews, centring on three body image domains (satisfaction with own appearance, views on exercise, and influence from family and friends) were conducted with 30 early adolescent Swedish girls and boys who at age 10 and 13 had shown the highest level of body satisfaction in a large longitudinal sample. The data were analyzed thematically. Results revealed that the adolescents' satisfaction with their own appearance was characterized by a functional view of the body and an acceptance of the bodily imperfections that they perceived that they had. The vast majority of the adolescents were physically active and found exercise joyful and health-promoting. Finally, although some of the adolescents had received negative comments about their appearance from family and friends, such comments were not given any importance.

Prejudice against obesity among 10-year-olds: a nationwide population-based study

AIMS

Population-based research on children's possible prejudice against thin, obese and average body sizes is scarce. This study examined children's prejudice against various body sizes of both sexes. The effects of sex, body size, place of residence and socio-economic status (SES) on children's prejudice were also investigated.

METHODS

In 2005, a nationally representative sample of 10-year-old children (N = 1409) responded to a questionnaire measuring stereotypes and prejudice against thin, average-weight and obese silhouettes.

RESULTS

As estimated by odds ratios (ORs), children were more likely to report prejudice against obesity (OR = 53, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 42-67) and thinness (OR = 20, 95% CI: 16-26) than against average body weight. The risk of being prejudiced varied with child's sex and with sex and body size of the silhouette figure. No association was found between own body weight and prejudice against various body sizes. Children with high SES were more likely to be prejudiced against obesity compared with children with low SES (OR = 1.2, 95% CI: 1.1-1.4).

CONCLUSION

This large, population-based study showed that Swedish 10-year-old children hold stereotypical attitudes and are prejudiced against not only peers with obesity but also those with thin body sizes. Interestingly, no association was found between own body weight and prejudice against various body sizes.

Social comparison and body image in adolescence: a grounded theory approach

This study explored the use of social comparison appraisals in adolescents' lives with particular reference to enhancement appraisals which can be used to counter threats to the self. Social comparison theory has been increasingly used in quantitative research to understand the processes through which societal messages about appearance influence adolescents' body image. Little is known about the comparison processes used in their daily lives-to whom individuals compare (the target), on what individuals compare (the attribute) and how they compare (comparison appraisal). Based on the analysis of 20 in-depth grounded theory interviews with 12- to 14-year old boys and girls, we suggest that comparison processes are used for the purpose of identity development (core category). Given the opportunity, adolescents spontaneously describe a variety of targets, comparison attributes and comparison appraisals. Peers play an important part in making sense of media images and messages and provide comparison targets themselves. Adolescents are aware of societal standards and pressures and use a range of enhancement appraisals. The positive impact of these might depend on individual characteristics. Findings suggest that enhancement appraisals might have a protective function and should be considered in designing health promotion and prevention programmes.

Smoking to stay thin or giving up to save face? Young men and women talk about appearance concerns and smoking

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed to investigate how young men and women smokers and non-smokers talk about the impact of smoking on appearance, with the aim of using these accounts to inform anti-smoking campaigns targeted at young people.

DESIGN

Volunteer smokers and non-smokers took part in 24 focus groups.

METHOD

Eighty-seven men and women aged 17-24 were asked to talk about impacts of smoking on appearance.

RESULTS

A thematic analysis of transcripts suggested that weight gain after quitting was only a significant concern for the younger (17-year-old) women. Non-smokers of both genders expressed concern about yellowing of skin and teeth if they started smoking, and women non-smokers were concerned about skin ageing. Smokers believed that smoking made them look 'cool', mature, and sophisticated and would quit only if skin ageing and other negative effects on appearance became visible.

CONCLUSIONS

Appearance concerns are relevant to the decision whether to start and quit smoking, and are linked to gender and age. Results are discussed in relation to implications for the development of age- and gender-relevant anti-smoking interventions.

Examining body dissatisfaction in young men within a biopsychosocial framework

This study examined biopsychosocial factors related to body dissatisfaction in young men within multivariate and moderator contexts. A female sample was included as a gender comparison. Male (n=111) and female (n=236) undergraduates filled out self-report questionnaires assessing body mass index (BMI), media influence, a history of weight-related teasing, and socially prescribed perfectionism, along with various indices of body dissatisfaction. Perceived pressure from the media was consistently related to body dissatisfaction in men whereas multiple biopsychosocial variables accounted for body dissatisfaction in women. Socially prescribed perfectionism and a history of weight teasing each moderated the relationship between BMI and male body dissatisfaction, identifying men low in body dissatisfaction. Findings indicate that applying a biopsychosocial framework to the study of body dissatisfaction in men is useful and suggest the need for including other factors, such as male peers and sports involvement, in understanding contributors to male body image.

The pursuit of muscularity among adolescent boys in Fiji and Tonga

The desire for muscularity is tied to Western views of the male gender role, which prescribe that men be strong, physically fit and athletically successful. Although, these ideals have been primarily studied among Western adolescent boys, there is emerging evidence that the same ideals are valued and promoted among males from the Pacific Islands. The aim of the present study was to examine body image concerns associated with muscularity and the reasons for these concerns among Fijian and Tongan adolescent boys. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 24 Indigenous Fijian, 24 Indo-Fijian, and 24 Tongan boys aged between 13 and 20 years. A thematic analysis of boys' narratives showed that the pursuit of muscularity was a dominant theme for many boys. Boys' reasons for pursing muscularity included the attainment of strength and fitness, sporting performance, physical work, dominance, and health. These findings are examined in relation to previous research with Western adolescent boys.

The role of ethnicity and culture in body image and disordered eating among males

An increasing number of researchers have examined body image concerns, disordered eating, and other behaviors associated with increasing muscle size among men from different cultural groups. However, to date there has been no synthesis or evaluation of these studies. In this paper we specifically review studies which have included a comparison between males from different cultural groups with White males on body image concerns or other related behaviors. The groups include Blacks, Hispanic Americans, Asians, Native Americans, Pacific Islanders, and men from Middle Eastern countries. Overall, evidence suggests that males from a range of cultural groups engage in more extreme body change strategies and binge eating than Whites. On the other hand, there is no consistent pattern which summarizes the nature of body image concerns across the different cultures. Mediating and/or moderating variables are proposed to account for the inconsistent findings. These include body build, levels of acculturation, socio-economic status, media exposure, and internalization of the muscular and lean body ideal.