Intervention on cardiovascular disease risk factors in Finnmark county: changes after a period of three years. The Cardiovascular Disease Study in Finnmark County, Norway

Can a sustainable community intervention reduce the health gap?--10-year evaluation of a Swedish community intervention program for the prevention of cardiovascular disease

OBJECTIVES

This paper evaluates the 10-year outcomes of a Northern Sweden community intervention program for the prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD), with special reference to the social patterning of risk development.

METHODS

Using a quasi-experimental design, trends in risk factors and predicted mortality in an intervention area (Norsjö municipality) are compared with those in a reference area (Northern Sweden region) by repeated independent cross-sectional surveys.

RESULTS

There were significant differences in changes in total cholesterol level and systolic blood pressure between the intervention and reference populations. The predicted coronary heart disease mortality (based on the North Karelia risk equation). after adjustment for age and education, was reduced by 36% in the intervention area and by 1% in the reference area.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that a long-term community-based CVD prevention program which combines population and individual strategies can substantially promote a health shift in CVD risk in a high risk rural population. When evaluated for different social strata, we found no signs of an increasing health gap between socially privileged and less privileged groups. Socially less-privileged groups benefited the most from the present prevention program.

Community interventions for reducing smoking among adults

BACKGROUND

Since smoking behaviour is determined by social context, the best way to reduce the prevalence of smoking may be to use community-wide programmes which use multiple channels to provide reinforcement, support and norms for not smoking.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of community interventions for reducing the prevalence of smoking.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group specialised register, MEDLINE (1966-August 2001) and EMBASE (1980-August 2001) and reference lists of articles.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Controlled trials of community interventions for reducing smoking prevalence in adult smokers. The primary outcome was smoking behaviour.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data were extracted by one person and checked by a second.

MAIN RESULTS

Thirty two studies were included, of which seventeen included only one intervention and one comparison community. Only four studies used random assignment of communities to either the intervention or comparison group. The population size of the communities ranged from a few thousand to over 100,000 people. Change in smoking prevalence was measured using cross-sectional follow-up data in 27 studies. The estimated net decline ranged from -1.0% to 3.0% for men and women combined (10 studies). For women, the decline ranged from -0.2% to + 3.5% per year (n=11), and for men the decline ranged from -0.4% to +1.6% per year (n=12). Cigarette consumption and quit rates were only reported in a small number of studies. The two most rigorous studies showed limited evidence of an effect on prevalence. In the US COMMIT study there was no differential decline in prevalence between intervention and control communities, and there was no significant difference in the quit rates of heavier smokers who were the target intervention group. In the Australian CART study there was a significantly greater quit rate for men but not women.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

The failure of the largest and best conducted studies to detect an effect on prevalence of smoking is disappointing. A community approach will remain an important part of health promotion activities, but designers of future programmes will need to take account of this limited effect in determining the scale of projects and the resources devoted to them.

Shifting the distribution of risk: results of a community intervention in a Swedish programme for the prevention of cardiovascular disease

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To examine the impact of a systematic risk factor screening and counselling carried out by family physicians and family nurses within the larger framework of a community intervention programme for the prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD).

DESIGN

Quasi-experimental study comparing trends in an intervention area with those in a reference area.

SETTING

A Northern Sweden municipality (5500 inhabitants) constituted the intervention area while the Northern Sweden region (510,000 inhabitants) served as the reference area.

PARTICIPANTS

All 30, 40, 50, and 60 year old inhabitants were invited each year from 1985 to 1992. Among 2046 eligible 1893 participated (92.5%), which formed eight independent cross sections. One cross section, 1986, was re-surveyed forming a panel.

MAIN RESULTS

In the cross sections, mean total cholesterol was reduced from 7.09 to 6.27 mmol/l for men (p < 0.001) and from 7.13 to 5.89 mmol/l for women (p < 0.001) and mean systolic blood pressure from 132.2 to 123.7 mm Hg for men (p < 0.05) and from 129.2 to 122.0 mm Hg for women (p < 0.001) during the eight years. Body mass index (BMI) increased from 25.6 to 26.2 for men (p < 0.05) and from 25.0 to 25.5 for women (NS). A corresponding reduction in cholesterol and blood pressure (for women) occurred in the panel, while BMI was unchanged. The risk for CVD, using the Framingham equation, was estimated to be reduced overall by 19% (p = 0.0021) when comparing early cross sections (1985/86) with the later cross sections (1990/91).

CONCLUSIONS

It was concluded that a long term community based CVD prevention programme that combines population and individual strategies can substantially promote a health shift in CVD risk in a high risk rural population. The individual attention and evaluation provided by the health provider survey seem to accelerate, but not increase the amount of, risk reduction.

Nutrition screening in old people: its place in a coherent practice of preventive health care

The central demographic reality of our times is the rapid aging of our society. Preventive nutritional and preventive health care of older people, therefore, are pressing issues that must be contended with. Several strategies for this are possible, including the broadcasting of general nutritional and health messages to the population, the inclusion of preventive nutrition and health as part of routine primary care, and nutrition screening: a process of self-identification by the older population in which they judge for themselves whether they are at nutritional risk and, if so, seek the care of professionals. This review focuses on some of the necessities for screening: sensitive, specific, and inexpensively applied screening devices; and explicit interventions that do not have major public health benefit for those who screen negative. Unfortunately, there is little evidence that screening is beneficial, nor have the benefits of this strategy been compared with its alternatives. Thus, the ethical imperative of screening has not been met: that because the activity is being promoted (it is not initiated by the public), its benefit must be conclusive.

Cardiovascular risk factors: interactive effects of lipids, coagulation and fibrinolysis

In western societies cardiovascular disease accounts for approximately one of every three deaths, and is a major contributor to chronic debiliation. During the last years our knowledge of factors that contribute to the development and progression of this disease has increased markedly. Elevated serum total cholesterol, hypertension and cigarette smoking are "traditional", well-known risk factors. In addition, low serum levels of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol predispose to development of disease, whereas in epidemiological studies the role of increased triglycerides is more controversial. During the last years derangements in several haemostatic components in persons who develop cardiovascular disease have been observed. Such alterations include increased plasma concentrations of fibrinogen, Factor VII coagulant activity and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1). Furthermore, interactions between lipoproteins and haemostatic factors are gradually being disclosed. Serum triglycerides have been shown to correlate both to PAI-1 and to Factor VII. The lipoprotein (a), first described by Berg in 1963, also appears to be a link between lipoprotein metabolism and fibrinolytic function. In addition, linkages are observed between high triglycerides, low HDL cholesterol, reduced glucose tolerance, hyperinsulinemia, obesity, low physical activity, reduced fibrinolytic capacity and increased Factor VII. This clustering of risk factors has been suggested to be a coronary risk syndrome and has been called Reavens syndrome, syndrome X and insulin-resistance syndrome. A more descriptive name, athero-thrombogenic syndrome (ATS), has recently been suggested, thereby indicating that both atherosclerosis and thrombosis contribute to its development.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Coffee consumption and death from coronary heart disease in middle aged Norwegian men and women

OBJECTIVE

To study the association between number of cups of coffee consumed per day and coronary death when taking other major coronary risk factors into account.

DESIGN

Men and women attending screening and followed up for a mean of 6.4 years.

SETTING

Cardiovascular survey performed by ambulatory teams from the National Health Screening Service in Norway.

PARTICIPANTS

All middle aged people in three counties: 19,398 men and 19,166 women aged 35-54 years who reported neither cardiovascular disease or diabetes nor symptoms of angina pectoris or intermittent claudication.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Predictive value of number of cups of coffee consumed per day.

RESULTS

At initial screening total serum cholesterol concentration, high density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration, blood pressure, height, and weight were measured and self reported information about smoking history, physical activity, and coffee drinking habits was recorded. Altogether 168 men and 16 women died of coronary heart disease during follow up. Mean cholesterol concentrations for men and women were almost identical and increased from the lowest to highest coffee consumption group (13.1% and 10.9% respectively). With the proportional hazards model and adjustment for age, total serum and high density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations, systolic blood pressure, and number of cigarettes per day the coefficient for coffee corresponded to a relative risk between nine or more cups of coffee and less than one cup of 2.2 (95% confidence interval 1.1 to 4.5) for men and 5.1 (0.4 to 60.3) for women. For men the relative risk varied among the three counties.

CONCLUSIONS

Coffee may affect mortality from coronary heart disease over and above its effect in raising cholesterol concentrations.