A novel compression garment with adhesive silicone stripes improves repeated sprint performance - a multi-experimental approach on the underlying mechanisms

Do compression garments enhance running performance? An updated systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Despite the wide use of compression garments to enhance athletic running performance, evidence supporting improvements has not been conclusive. This updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) compared the effects of compression garment wearing with those of non-compression garment wearing (controls) during running on improving running performance.

METHODS

A comprehensive search was conducted in the electronic databases (Web of Science, EBSCOhost, PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Cochrane) for RCTs comparing running performance between runners wearing compression garments and controls during running, from inception to September 2024. Independent reviewers screened studies, extracted data, appraised risk of bias (RoB 2) and certainty of evidence (Grading of Recommendations Assessments, Development and Evaluation (GRADE)). Primary outcomes were race time and time to exhaustion. Secondary outcomes covered running speed and race pace, submaximal oxygen uptake, tissue oxygenation, and soft tissue vibration. Random-effects meta-analyses were conducted to generate pooled estimates, expressed in standardized mean difference (SMD). Subgroup differences of garment, race type, and contact surface were tested in moderator analyses.

RESULTS

The search yielded 51 eligible studies comprising 899 participants, of which 33 studies were available for meta-analysis of primary outcomes. Runners wearing compression garments during running showed no significant improvement in race time (SMD = -0.07, 95%CI: -0.22 to 0.09; p = 0.40) or time to exhaustion (SMD = 0.04, 95%CI: -0.20 to 0.29; p = 0.72). Moderator analyses indicated no effects from garment type, race type, or surface. Secondary outcomes also showed no performance benefits, although compression garments significantly reduced soft tissue vibration (SMD = -0.43, 95%CI: -0.70 to -0.15; p < 0.01). Certainty of evidence was rated low to very low.

CONCLUSION

Data synthesis of current RCTs offers no updated evidence favoring the support of wearing compression garments during running as a viable strategy for improving running and endurance performance among runners of varying performance levels and types of running races.

Whole leg compression garments influence lower limb kinematics and associated muscle synergies during running

The utilization of compression garments (CGs) has demonstrated the potential to improve athletic performance; however, the specific mechanisms underlying this enhancement remain a subject of further investigation. This study aimed to examine the impact of CGs on running mechanics and muscle synergies from a neuromuscular control perspective. Twelve adult males ran on a treadmill at 12 km/h, while data pertaining to lower limb kinematics, kinetics, and electromyography were collected under two clothing conditions: whole leg compression garments and control. The Non-negative matrix factorization algorithm was employed to extract muscle synergy during running, subsequently followed by cluster analysis and correlation analysis. The findings revealed that the CGs increased knee extension and reduced hip flexion at foot strike compared with the control condition. Moreover, CGs were found to enhance stance-phase peak knee extension, while diminishing hip flexion and maximal hip extension during the stance-phase, and the ankle kinematics remained unaltered. We extracted and classified six synergies (SYN1-6) during running and found that only five SYNs were observed after wearing CGs. CGs altered the structure of the synergies and changed muscle activation weights and durations. The current study is the first to apply muscle synergy to discuss the effect of CGs on running biomechanics. Our findings provide neuromuscular evidence for the idea of previous studies that CGs alter the coordination of muscle groups, thereby affecting kinematic characteristics during running.

Evaluating the effect of sports compression tights on balance, sprinting, jumping and change of direction tasks

Compression garments are commonly used during athletic tasks. However, the effect of compression garments on balance, sprinting, jumping and change of direction performance requires further investigation. In the current study, 24 recreationally active participants (12 males, 12 females, age 27 ± 3 years) completed single-leg balance tasks, countermovement jumps, drop jumps, 10 m straight line sprints and change of direction tasks wearing either compression tights (COMP) or regular exercise tights (CON). There was a significant main effect of the condition for 10 m sprint time (p = 0.03, d = -0.18) and change of direction time (p = 0.03, d = -0.20) in favour of COMP. In addition, there was a significant, small difference (p = 0.05, d = -0.30) in ellipse area and a small (p = 0.16, d = 0.21) difference in balance time in favour of COMP during a single-leg balance task. There were no significant differences between trials for any of the other balance or jump tests (p > 0.05). The application of compression tights during exercise may offer small benefits to the performance of balance and change of direction tasks, though these benefits are likely within the typical error of measurement for the tests used.

Do Sports Compression Garments Alter Measures of Peripheral Blood Flow? A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

One of the proposed mechanisms underlying the benefits of sports compression garments may be alterations in peripheral blood flow.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to determine if sports compression garments alter measures of peripheral blood flow at rest, as well as during, immediately after and in recovery from a physiological challenge (i.e. exercise or an orthostatic challenge).

METHODS

We conducted a systematic literature search of databases including Scopus, SPORTDiscus and PubMed/MEDLINE. The criteria for inclusion of studies were: (1) original papers in English and a peer-reviewed journal; (2) assessed effect of compression garments on a measure of peripheral blood flow at rest and/or before, during or after a physiological challenge; (3) participants were healthy and without cardiovascular or metabolic disorders; and (4) a study population including athletes and physically active or healthy participants. The PEDro scale was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. A random-effects meta-analysis model was used. Changes in blood flow were quantified by standardised mean difference (SMD) [± 95% confidence interval (CI)].

RESULTS

Of the 899 articles identified, 22 studies were included for the meta-analysis. The results indicated sports compression garments improve overall peripheral blood flow (SMD = 0.32, 95% CI 0.13, 0.51, p = 0.001), venous blood flow (SMD = 0.37, 95% CI 0.14, 0.60, p = 0.002) and arterial blood flow (SMD = 0.30, 95% CI 0.01, 0.59, p = 0.04). At rest, sports compression garments did not improve peripheral blood flow (SMD = 0.18, 95% CI - 0.02, 0.39, p = 0.08). However, subgroup analyses revealed sports compression garments enhance venous (SMD = 0.31 95% CI 0.02, 0.60, p = 0.03), but not arterial (SMD = 0.12, 95% CI - 0.16, 0.40, p = 0.16), blood flow. During a physiological challenge, peripheral blood flow was improved (SMD = 0.44, 95% CI 0.19, 0.69, p = 0.0007), with subgroup analyses revealing sports compression garments enhance venous (SMD = 0.48, 95% CI 0.11, 0.85, p = 0.01) and arterial blood flow (SMD = 0.44, 95% CI 0.03, 0.86, p = 0.04). At immediately after a physiological challenge, there were no changes in peripheral blood flow (SMD = - 0.04, 95% CI - 0.43, 0.34, p = 0.82) or subgroup analyses of venous (SMD = - 0.41, 95% CI - 1.32, 0.47, p = 0.35) and arterial (SMD = 0.12, 95% CI - 0.26, 0.51, p = 0.53) blood flow. In recovery, sports compression garments did not improve peripheral blood flow (SMD = 0.25, 95% CI - 0.45, 0.95, p = 0.49). The subgroup analyses showed enhanced venous (SMD = 0.67, 95% CI 0.17, 1.17, p = 0.009), but not arterial blood flow (SMD = 0.02, 95% CI - 1.06, 1.09, p = 0.98).

CONCLUSIONS

Use of sports compression garments enhances venous blood flow at rest, during and in recovery from, but not immediately after, a physiological challenge. Compression-induced changes in arterial blood flow were only evident during a physiological challenge.

Putting the Squeeze on Compression Garments: Current Evidence and Recommendations for Future Research: A Systematic Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Compression garments are regularly worn during exercise to improve physical performance, mitigate fatigue responses, and enhance recovery. However, evidence for their efficacy is varied and the methodological approaches and outcome measures used within the scientific literature are diverse.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this scoping review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the effects of compression garments on commonly assessed outcome measures in response to exercise, including: performance, biomechanical, neuromuscular, cardiovascular, cardiorespiratory, muscle damage, thermoregulatory, and perceptual responses.

METHODS

A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and CINAHL Complete) was performed from the earliest record to 27 December, 2020.

RESULTS

In total, 183 studies were identified for qualitative analysis with the following breakdown: performance and muscle function outcomes: 115 studies (63%), biomechanical and neuromuscular: 59 (32%), blood and saliva markers: 85 (46%), cardiovascular: 76 (42%), cardiorespiratory: 39 (21%), thermoregulatory: 19 (10%) and perceptual: 98 (54%). Approximately 85% (n = 156) of studies were published between 2010 and 2020.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence is equivocal as to whether garments improve physical performance, with little evidence supporting improvements in kinetic or kinematic outcomes. Compression likely reduces muscle oscillatory properties and has a positive effect on sensorimotor systems. Findings suggest potential increases in arterial blood flow; however, it is unlikely that compression garments meaningfully change metabolic responses, blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiorespiratory measures. Compression garments increase localised skin temperature and may reduce perceptions of muscle soreness and pain following exercise; however, rating of perceived exertion during exercise is likely unchanged. It is unlikely that compression garments negatively influence exercise-related outcomes. Future research should assess wearer belief in compression garments, report pressure ranges at multiple sites as well as garment material, and finally examine individual responses and varying compression coverage areas.

Customised pressure profiles of made-to-measure sports compression garments

The purpose of this study was to make made-to-measure compression garments that elicit pressures within and below clinical standards. The study also examined whether pressures and gradients can be replicated within and between participants’ legs, and between separate compression garment conditions. Ten males volunteered to participate. Based on three-dimensional scans of the participants’ lower body, three different made-to-measure garments were manufactured: control, symmetrical and asymmetrical. Garment pressures were assessed from the malleolus to the gluteal fold using a pressure monitoring device. A root mean squared difference analysis was used to calculate the in vivo linear graduation parameters. Linear regression showed that peak pressure at the ankle in the left and right leg were: control garment, 13.5 ± 2.3 and 12.9 ± 2.6; asymmetrical garment, 12.7 ± 2.5 and 26.3 ± 3.4; symmetrical garment, 27.7 ± 2.2 and 27.5 ± 1.6 (all mmHg, mean ± standard deviation). Pressure reduction from the ankle to the gluteal fold in the left and right leg were: control, 8.9 ± 3.5 and 7.4 ± 3.0; asymmetrical, 7.8 ± 3.9 and 21.9 ± 3.2; symmetrical, 25.0 ± 4.1 and 22.3 ± 3.6 (all mmHg, mean ± standard deviation). Made-to-measure compression garments can be made to elicit pressures within and below clinical standards, and to elicit equivalent pressures and gradients in different participants.

Enhanced Cycling Time-Trial Performance During Multiday Exercise With Higher-Pressure Compression Garment Wear

PURPOSE

Compression garments are widely used as a tool to accelerate recovery from intense exercise and have also gained traction as a performance aid, particularly during periods of limited recovery. This study tested the hypothesis that increased pressure levels applied via high-pressure compression garments would enhance "multiday" exercise performance.

METHODS

A single-blind crossover design, incorporating 3 experimental conditions-loose-fitting gym attire (CON), low-compression (LC), and high-compression (HC) garments-was adopted. A total of 10 trained male cyclists reported to the laboratory on 6 occasions, collated into 3 blocks of 2 consecutive visits. Each "block" consisted of 3 parts, an initial high-intensity protocol, a 24-hour period of controlled rest while wearing the applied condition/garment (CON, LC, and HC), and a subsequent 8-km cycling time trial, while wearing the respective garment. Subjective discomfort questionnaires and blood pressure were assessed prior to each exercise bout. Power output, oxygen consumption, and heart rate were continuously measured throughout exercise, with plasma lactate, creatine kinase, and myoglobin concentrations assessed at baseline and the end of exercise, as well as 30 and 60 minutes postexercise.

RESULTS

Time-trial performance was significantly improved during HC compared with both CON and LC (HC = 277 [83], CON = 266 [89], and LC = 265 [77] W; P < .05). In addition, plasma lactate was significantly lower at 30 and 60 minutes postexercise on day 1 in HC compared with CON. No significant differences were observed for oxygen consumption, heart rate, creatine kinase, or subjective markers of discomfort.

CONCLUSION

The pressure levels exerted via lower-limb compression garments influence their effectiveness for cycling performance, particularly in the face of limited recovery.

Investigation of the Impact of Below-Knee Compression Garments on Markers of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage and Performance in Endurance Runners: A Prospective Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Compression garment utilization is very popular among runners despite a lack of consensus in the literature regarding a beneficial impact. The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of training and competing with compression garments on exercise-induced muscle damage and performance in ultramarathon runners.

HYPOTHESIS

Compression garments will reduce the severity of exercise-induced muscle damage and improve performance in long-distance runners compared with control conditions.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective, randomized controlled trial.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 1.

METHODS

The study was conducted in healthy, uninjured endurance runners (n = 41) participating in a 56-km ultramarathon. The experimental group (n = 20; 14 males, 6 females) trained for 6 weeks and participated in the race wearing below-knee compression garments while the control group (n = 21; 15 males, 6 females) did not. Participants were tested on 4 occasions for various markers of exercise-induced muscle damage and running performance.

RESULTS

Ankle circumference measurements increased significantly less ( P = 0.01, Cohen d = 0.9) in the experimental group from immediately after until 2 days post-race compared with the control group. No further statistically significant changes were detected over time in midcalf circumferences, muscle architecture, or race performance. Selected pain ratings were statistically significant and worse in the experimental group.

CONCLUSION

There are limited indications of a beneficial impact of compression garments with improvements in ankle circumference measurements. No ergogenic impact was detected.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

There is limited evidence to support the continued utilization of commercially available below-knee compression garments during running for the purpose of muscle recovery or as a performance aid.

The relationship between compression garments and electrocardiogram signals during exercise and recovery phase

BACKGROUND

The direction of the current research was to investigate whether electrocardiogram (ECG) signals have been impacted by using compression garments during exercise and recovery phase. Each subject is non-athletes, conducted two running tests, wearing either non-compression garments (NCGs) or compression garments (CGs) throughout experiments and 2-h of the recovery phase. Experiment 1 (number of participants (n) = 8; 61.4 ± 13.7 kg, 25.1 ± 3.8 years, 165.9 ± 8.3 cm) focused on the exercising phase while Experiment 2 (n = 14; 60.9 ± 12.0 kg, 24.7 ± 4.5 years, 166.0 ± 7.6 cm) concentrated on the recovery phase. Electrocardiogram (ECG) data were collected through wearable biosensors.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated a significant difference between compression garments and non-compression garments at the end of the tests and from 90 min onwards during the recovery phase (p < 0.05). Corrected QT (QTc), ST interval and heart rate (HR) indicated the significant difference between NCGs and CGs.

CONCLUSION

Based on the findings, the utilization of compression garments showed a positive influence in non-athletes based on the quicker recovery in HR, ST, and QTc.

Wearing compression socks during exercise aids subsequent performance

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effect of wearing compression socks on immediate and subsequent 5km running time trials, with particular attention to the influences on physiological, perceptual and performance-based parameters.

DESIGN

Counter-balanced cross-over experiment.

METHODS

Twelve male runners (mean±SD 5km run time 19:29±1:18min:s) each completed two experimental sessions. Sessions consisted of a standardised running warm-up, followed by a 5km time trial (TT1), a one hour recovery period, then a repeat of the warm-up and 5km time trial (TT2). One session required the use of sports compression socks during the first warm-up and time trial (COMP), while the other did not (CON).

RESULTS

The decline in run performance in CON from TT1 to TT2 was moderate and significantly greater than that experienced by runners in COMP (9.6s, d=0.67, p<0.01). No difference was found between experimental conditions for oxygen consumption, blood lactate or calf volume (p=0.61, 0.54, 0.64, respectively). Perceptual measures of muscle soreness, fatigue and recovery were also similar between trials (p=0.56, 1.00 & 0.61, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Wearing sports compression socks during high intensity running has a positive impact on subsequent running performance. The underlying mechanism of such performance enhancement remains unclear, but may relate to improved oxygen delivery, reduced muscle oscillation, superior running mechanics and athlete beliefs.

A Pilot RCT Investigating the Effects of Targeted Compression on Athletes With Pelvic/Groin Pain

CONTEXT

Athletic pelvic/groin pain is a common yet often challenging problem to both diagnose and manage. A new tool has been developed based on the clinical effects of applied force on the pelvis. Early findings indicate that this customized compression orthosis may have a positive effect on pelvic/groin pain and performance measures.

OBJECTIVES

To inform the design and test the practicality of procedures for a future definitively powered randomized controlled trial and to provide an estimate of the effect size of this orthosis on selected clinical and performance measures.

DESIGN

Pilot randomized controlled trial with participants randomly allocated to an intervention or waiting-list control group.

SETTING

The training location of each athlete.

PARTICIPANTS

24 athletes with subacute and chronic pelvic conditions were proposed to be recruited.

INTERVENTION

A customized compression orthosis, delivering targeted compression to the pelvic girdle.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Measures were the active straight leg raise (ASLR) test, squeeze test, broad jump, and the multiple single-leg hop-stabilization test.

RESULTS

A total of 16 athletes completed the study. The invention group demonstrated moderate to large estimated effect sizes on the squeeze test and active straight leg raise tests (d = 0.6-1.1) while wearing the orthosis. Small effect sizes (d = 0.2) were seen on jump distance and the dominant leg balance score. Compared with the control group, the intervention group also showed moderate to large estimated effect sizes on the active straight leg raise measures (d = 0.5-0.9) when wearing sports shorts.

CONCLUSIONS

The protocol was feasible. Effect sizes and recruitment/attrition rates suggest that the intervention holds promise and that a future definitively powered randomized controlled trial appears feasible and is indicated.

Association of Lower Limb Compression Garments During High-Intensity Exercise with Performance and Physiological Responses: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Although compression garments are used to improve sports performance, methodological approaches and the direction of evidence regarding garments for use in high-intensity exercise settings are diverse.

OBJECTIVES

Our primary aim was to summarize the association between lower-limb compression garments (LLCGs) and changes in sports performance during high-intensity exercise. We also aimed to summarize evidence about the following physiological parameters related to sports performance: vertical jump height (VJ), maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max), submaximal oxygen uptake (VO₂submax), blood lactate concentrations ([La]), and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE, 6-20 Borg scale).

METHODS

We searched electronic databases (PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, and ClinicalTrials.gov) and reference lists for previous reviews. Eligible studies included randomized controlled trials with athletes or physically active subjects (≥ 18 years) using any type of LLCG during high-intensity exercise. The results were described as weighted mean difference (WMD) with a 95% confidence interval (95% CI).

RESULTS

The 23 included studies showed low statistical heterogeneity for the pooled outcomes. We found that LLCGs yielded similar running performance to controls (50-400 m: WMD 0.06 s [95% CI - 1.99 to 2.11]; 800-3000 m: WMD 6.10 s [95% CI - 7.23 to 19.43]; > 5000 m: WMD 1.01 s [95% CI - 84.80 to 86.82]). Likewise, we found no evidence that LLCGs were superior in secondary outcomes (VJ: WMD 2.25 cm [95% CI - 2.51 to 7.02]; VO₂max: WMD 0.24 mL.kg^-1.min^-1 [95% CI - 1.48 to 1.95]; VO₂submax: WMD - 0.26 mL.kg^-1.min^-1 [95% CI - 2.66 to 2.14]; [La]: WMD 0.19 mmol/L [95% CI - 0.22 to 0.60]; RPE: WMD - 0.20 points [95% CI - 0.48 to 0.08]).

CONCLUSIONS

LLCGs were not associated with improved performance in VJ, VO₂max, VO₂submax, [La], or RPE during high-intensity exercise. Such evidence should be taken into account when considering using LLCGs to enhance running performance.

Lower Limb Sports Compression Garments Improve Muscle Blood Flow and Exercise Performance During Repeated-Sprint Cycling

Purpose: Evidence supporting the use of lower-limb compression garments during repeated-sprint exercise (RSE) with short rest periods, where performance will rely heavily on aerobic metabolism, is lacking. Methods: A total of 20 recreationally active participants completed 2 cycling RSE sessions, with and without lower-limb compression tights. The RSE session consisted of 4 sets of 10 × 6-s maximal sprints on a wind-braked cycle ergometer, interspaced by 24 s of recovery between bouts and 2 min of recovery between sets. Muscle oxygen consumption () of, and blood flow (mBF) to, the right vastus lateralis muscle was measured during exercise using near-infrared spectroscopy and venous/arterial occlusions of the right lower limb. Cycling performance, oxygen consumption (), heart rate, and capillary blood samples (lactate, pH, bicarbonate, and base excess) were also measured/taken throughout the session. Results: Compared with control, peak power (40.7 [19.9] W; mean ± 95% confidence intervals) and mBF (0.101 [0.061] mL·min−1·100 g−1) were higher, and heart rate (2  [1] beats/min) was lower, when participants wore compression (P < .05). , , blood lactate, and heart rate increased as a result of exercise (P < .05), with no differences between conditions. Similarly, blood pH, bicarbonate, and base excess decreased as a result of exercise (P < .05), with no difference between conditions. Conclusions: Wearing lower-limb compression tights during RSE with short intervals of rest improved cycling performance, vastus lateralis mBF, and heart rate. These results provide novel data to support the notion that lower-limb compression garments aid RSE performance, which may be related to local and/or central blood flow.

Acute Responses to Forearm Compression of Blood Lactate Accumulation, Heart Rate, Perceived Exertion, and Muscle Pain in Elite Climbers

Objectives: To evaluate the immediate responses to forearm compression of blood lactate concentration, heart rate, perceived exertion and local forearm muscle pain during severe climbing in elite climbers.

Method: Seven elite climbers (18 ± 2 years; 164 ± 5 cm; 57.8 ± 5.3 kg) performed 3 × 3 climbing bouts with maximal intensity on a distinct 8 m boulder wall (lead grade: 7a–8b) in a single blinded, placebo-controlled cross-over design, wearing either forearm sleeves with compression (verum-compression) or placebo forearm sleeves with no compression (falsum-compression). Each climber’s heart rate was recorded during and capillary blood lactate concentration, perceived exertion and forearm muscle pain were assessed directly after climbing.

Result: Heart rate (p = 0.45, ηp2 = 0.12), blood lactate concentrations (p = 0.44, ηp2 = 0.10), perceived exertion levels (p = 0.51, ηp2 = 0.08) and pain perception (p = 0.67, ηp2 = 0.03) were not affected by forearm compression. No condition × time interaction effect (compression × time) occurred for heart rate (p = 0.66, ηp2 = 0.04), blood lactate concentration (p = 0.70, ηp2 = 0.02), perceived exertion (p = 0.20, ηp2 = 0.26) and pain perception (p = 0.62, ηp2 = 0.04).

Conclusion: In elite climbers performing severe climbing bouts, sleeves with forearm compression do not alter blood lactate concentration, heart rate, perceived exertion and local forearm muscle pain.

Pressure profiles of sport compression stockings

BACKGROUND

While sport compression stockings (SCS) have become increasingly popular, there is no regulatory norm as exists for medical compression stockings (MCS). The objective of this pilot study was to compare five SCS with respect to their pressure profiles ex vivo and in vivo, and in relation to German standards for MCS (RAL norm).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In vivo (10 competitive athletes; standardized procedure using the Kikuhime pressure monitor) and ex vivo (tested at the Hohenstein Institute) pressure profiles were tested for the following products: CEP Running Progressive Socks, Falke Running Energizing, Sigvaris Performance, X-Socks Speed Metal Energizer, and 2XU Compression Race Socks.

RESULTS

Ex vivo ankle pressures of CEP (25.6 mmHg) and 2XU (23.2 mmHg) corresponded to class 2 MCS; that of Sigvaris (20.8 mmHg), to class 1 MCS. The remaining SCS achieved lower pressure values. The pressure gradients showed marked differences, and did not meet MCS standards. Average in vivo pressures were higher for 2XU, CEP, and Sigvaris than for Falke and X-Socks. However, in vivo values for all SCS were below those of class 1 MCS. None of the SCS showed the decreasing pressure gradient (from distal to proximal) required for MCS.

CONCLUSIONS

In vivo and ex vivo pressure profiles of all SCS examined showed marked heterogeneity, and did not meet MCS standards. Consequently, the clinical and practical effects of SCS cannot be compared, either. It would therefore be desirable to establish a classification that allows for the categorization and comparison of various SCS as well as their selection based on individual preferences and needs (high vs. low pressure, progressive vs. degressive profile).

The Efficacy of Wrestling-Style Compression Suits to Improve Maximum Isometric Force and Movement Velocity in Well-Trained Male Rugby Athletes

Purpose: The prevalence of compression garment (CG) use is increasing with athletes striving to take advantage of the purported benefits to recovery and performance. Here, we investigated the effect of CG on muscle force and movement velocity performance in athletes. Methods: Ten well-trained male rugby athletes wore a wrestling-style CG suit applying 13-31 mmHg of compressive pressure during a training circuit in a repeated-measures crossover design. Force and velocity data were collected during a 5-s isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) and repeated countermovement jump (CMJ), respectively; and time to complete a 5-m horizontal loaded sled push was also measured. Results: IMTP peak force was enhanced in the CG condition by 139 ± 142 N (effect size [ES] = 0.36). Differences in CMJ peak velocity (ES = 0.08) and loaded sled-push sprint time between the conditions were trivial (ES = -0.01). A qualitative assessment of the effects of CG wear suggested that the likelihood of harm was unlikely in the CMJ and sled push, while a beneficial effect in the CMJ was possible, but not likely. Half of the athletes perceived a functional benefit in the IMTP and CMJ exercises. Conclusion: Consistent with other literature, there was no substantial effect of wearing a CG suit on CMJ and sprint performance. The improvement in peak force generation capability in an IMTP may be of benefit to rugby athletes involved in scrummaging or lineout lifting. The mechanism behind the improved force transmission is unclear, but may involve alterations in neuromuscular recruitment and proprioceptive feedback.

Responses of low and high compression during recovery after repeated sprint training in well-trained handball players

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of wearing various levels of compression following repeated and exhausting sprint exercise on variables related to recovery. Twelve well-trained handball players performed three sessions of repeated and exhausting sprint exercise (30 × 30m). Directly after each session the participants wore tights extending from below the hip to the foot with either 0, 10, or 25 mm Hg of compression onto the thigh and calf muscles. 48 h after the training session all participants performed 5 × 30m sprints and counter movement jumps. Before, directly after, 24 h, and 48 h after the training session venous blood samples were drawn for the determination of creatine kinase (CK), urea, C-reactive protein (CRP). At the same time points, subjective ratings of the Acute Recovery and Stress Scale (ARSS) questionnaires were obtained. The results for plasma concentrations of CK and urea showed 'likely' to 'very, very likely' beneficial effects for compression garments exerting 10 mm Hg of compression (p = 0.06-1.0). With regard to sprint and jump performance no differences were evident between 0, 10, and 25 mm Hg (p = 0.07-1.0). In addition, subjective scores from the ARSS did not differ between conditions over time (p > 0.05). We conclude that the application of 10 mm Hg leg compression compared to 0 and 25 mm Hg of compression during 48 h of recovery from repeated and exhausting sprints lowered the plasma concentrations of CK and urea with no improvements in recovery for performance.

Calf Compression Sleeves Change Biomechanics but Not Performance and Physiological Responses in Trail Running

Introduction: The aim of this study was to determine whether calf compression sleeves (CS) affects physiological and biomechanical parameters, exercise performance, and perceived sensations of muscle fatigue, pain and soreness during prolonged (~2 h 30 min) outdoor trail running.

Methods: Fourteen healthy trained males took part in a randomized, cross-over study consisting in two identical 24-km trail running sessions (each including one bout of running at constant rate on moderately flat terrain, and one period of all-out running on hilly terrain) wearing either degressive CS (23 ± 2 mmHg) or control sleeves (CON, <4 mmHg). Running time, heart rate and muscle oxygenation of the medial gastrocnemius muscle (measured using portable near-infrared spectroscopy) were monitored continuously. Muscle functional capabilities (power, stiffness) were determined using 20 s of maximal hopping before and after both sessions. Running biomechanics (kinematics, vertical and leg stiffness) were determined at 12 km·h⁻¹ at the beginning, during, and at the end of both sessions. Exercise-induced Achilles tendon pain and delayed onset calf muscles soreness (DOMS) were assessed using visual analog scales.

Results: Muscle oxygenation increased significantly in CS compared to CON at baseline and immediately after exercise (p < 0.05), without any difference in deoxygenation kinetics during the run, and without any significant change in run times. Wearing CS was associated with (i) higher aerial time and leg stiffness in running at constant rate, (ii) with lower ground contact time, higher leg stiffness, and higher vertical stiffness in all-out running, and (iii) with lower ground contact time in hopping. Significant DOMS were induced in both CS and CON (>6 on a 10-cm scale) with no difference between conditions. However, Achilles tendon pain was significantly lower after the trial in CS than CON (p < 0.05).

Discussion: Calf compression did not modify muscle oxygenation during ~2 h 30 of trail running but significantly changed running biomechanics and lower limb muscle functional capabilities toward a more dynamic behavior compared to control session. However, wearing compression sleeves did not affect performance and exercise-induced DOMS, while it minimized Achilles tendon pain immediately after running.

The effects of lower-body compression garments on walking performance and perceived exertion in adults with CVD risk factors

OBJECTIVES

Compression garments are used by athletes in attempts to enhance performance and recovery, although evidence to support their use is equivocal. Reducing the exertion experienced during exercise may encourage sedentary individuals to increase physical activity. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of compression garments on walking performance (self-paced and enforced pace) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) in adults who presented with two or more CVD risk factors. Participants (n=15, 10 female, 58.9±11.5 years, BMI 27.5±4.5kgm²) were recruited.

DESIGN

A repeated measures design.

METHODS

Participants were randomised to Modified Bruce Protocol (enforced pace), or the 6min walk test (self-paced), and completed the test wearing compression garments or normal exercise clothes (Control). Outcome measures included stage completed, gross efficiency (%) and RPE in Modified Bruce Protocol, and distance walked (m) and RPE in 6 min walk test.

RESULTS

In the Modified Bruce Protcol participants had a higher RPE (15.5±2.5 vs 14.3±2.2) and a lower efficiency (19.1±5.9 vs 21.1±6.7) in the compression garment condition compared with control, p<0.05. In the 6 min walk test participants walked 9% less in the compression garment condition (p<0.05) but did not have a lower RPE.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with previous studies reporting enhanced or no effects of compression garments on performance or RPE, this study shows adverse effects of such clothing in untrained individuals with CVD risk factors. The mechanisms underlying this negative effect require further exploration. Use of garments designed for the athletic individuals may not be suitable for the wider population.