Minocycline and antipsychotics inhibit inflammatory responses in BV-2 microglia activated by LPS via regulating the MAPKs/ JAK-STAT signaling pathway

Pentadecyl®, an odd-chain-rich triglyceride mixture derived from Aurantiochytrium oil, attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory cytokine production in BV-2 microglial cells

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Microglia are the primary immune cells of the central nervous system that play pivotal roles in health and disease. Abnormally activated microglia secrete proinflammatory factors and play essential roles in neurodegenerative disease progression. This study investigated the potential effects of Pentadecyl, rich in odd-numbered fatty acids, such as pentadecanoic acid, isolated from Aurantiochytrium limacinum, on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced immune response of BV-2 microglial cells.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Cell viability was detected using MTT and LIVE/DEAD assays. mRNA and protein levels of inflammatory cytokines and signaling factors were assessed using real-time PCR and western blotting, respectively.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Pentadecyl did not affect MTT-reducing activity or the number of dead cells stained with ethidium homodimer-1. Pentadecyl selectively mitigated the LPS-induced overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1β, at the transcriptional and protein levels, whereas tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) expression remained unchanged. Western blot analysis showed that Pentadecyl downregulated the LPS-induced increase in the phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) but did not affect the phosphorylation of p65, a component of nuclear factor-kappa B, or p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase, both of which are mitogen-activated protein kinases. Similar to Pentadecyl, Stattic, a representative STAT3 inhibitor, preferentially suppressed the LPS-induced upregulation of IL-6 and IL-1β mRNA expression, whereas its inhibitory effect on TNF-α expression was relatively modest. These results indicate that Pentadecyl suppresses LPS-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine production without affecting cell survival by regulating the STAT3 signaling pathway in BV-2 cells.

Unraveling the potential of neuroinflammation and autophagy in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a complex and chronic psychiatric disorder that affects a significant proportion of the global population. Although the precise etiology of SCZ remains uncertain, recent studies have underscored the involvement of neuroinflammation and autophagy in its pathogenesis. Neuroinflammation, characterized by hyperactivated microglia and markedly elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines, has been observed in postmortem brain tissues of SCZ patients and is closely associated with disease severity. Autophagy, a cellular process responsible for eliminating damaged components and maintaining cellular homeostasis, is believed to play a pivotal role in neuronal health and the onset of SCZ. This review explores the roles and underlying mechanisms of neuroinflammation and autophagy in SCZ, with a particular focus on their intricate interplay. Additionally, we provide an overview of potential therapeutic strategies aimed at modulating neuroinflammation and autophagy, including nutritional interventions, anti-inflammatory drugs, antipsychotics, and plant-derived natural compounds. The review also addresses the dual effects of antipsychotics on autophagy. Our objective is to translate these insights into clinical practice, expanding the therapeutic options available to improve the overall health and well-being of individuals with SCZ.

Unravelling the role of Interleukin-12 in Neuroinflammatory mechanisms: Pathogenic pathways linking Neuroinflammation to neuropsychiatric disorders

Neuropsychiatric disorders are clinically characterized conditions involving both neurology and psychiatry, arising from dysfunctioning of cerebral function, or indirect effects of extra cerebral disease. Neuropsychiatric disorders tend to influence emotions, mood, and brain functioning. Growing evidence indicates that the etiology of these disorders is not confined to neuronal abnormalities but extends to include inflammation. While the underlying mechanism of these disorders is still in its infancy, recent data highlights the significant role of neuroinflammation in their pathophysiology. Neuroinflammation concerns the inflammation within the neural tissue characterized by alteration in astrocytes, cytokines, microglia, and chemokines within the central nervous system. The cytokines include IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and IL-12. This review focuses on interleukin-12 (IL-12), a key mediator of neuroinflammation, and its potential involvement in neuropsychiatric disorders. IL-12 promotes neuroinflammation and influences neurotransmitter systems. Additionally, it also affects the HPA axis, impairs neuroplasticity, and activates microglia by interacting with TLR, JAK-STAT, PI3K/Akt, GSK-3, NMDA, MAPK, PKC, VEGFR, ROCK, and Wnt signaling pathways and elicit its role in ND. In this review, we dwell on the current evidence supporting IL-12's pathogenic role and explore the possible mechanisms by which it contributes to the development and progression of these conditions. This review aims to provide insights that may aid in future therapeutic strategies by illuminating the interplay between neuroinflammation and neuropsychiatric disorders.

Targeting Neuroinflammation in Schizophrenia: A comprehensive review of mechanisms and pharmacological interventions

Schizophrenia is a complex psychiatric disorder traditionally linked to neurotransmitter imbalances, but growing evidence implicates neuroinflammation as a key factor in its pathogenesis. Core pathological features include aberrant microglial activation, elevated proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-6, TNF-α), blood-brain barrier disruption, and oxidative stress, all contributing to neuronal dysfunction. Genetic, epigenetic, and neurodevelopmental abnormalities further intensify the link between neuroinflammation and clinical symptoms, including cognitive deficits and positive/negative symptoms. Therapeutically, anti-inflammatory strategies show promise: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit the cyclooxygenase pathway; minocycline modulates microglial activity; cytokine inhibitors regulate immune responses; and antioxidants and mitochondrial agents (e.g., N-acetylcysteine, omega-3 fatty acids) reduce oxidative damage. Emerging approaches such as cannabidiol and nanodelivery systems also demonstrate anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective potential. However, long-term safety, dosage optimization, and individual variability remain to be fully validated. Future research should integrate single-cell genomics, neuroimaging, and biomarker stratification to elucidate neuroinflammatory mechanisms and enable precise combination therapies. Combining immunomodulatory and neurotransmitter-based strategies may overcome the limitations of traditional antipsychotics and improve clinical outcomes.

Taurochenodeoxycholic acid activates autophagy and suppresses inflammatory responses in microglia of MPTP-induced Parkinson's disease mice via AMPK/mTOR, AKT/NFκB and Pink1/Parkin signaling pathways mediated by Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by degeneration and necrosis of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and decreased dopamine secretion in the striatum. Bile acids are important components of animal bile. In recent years, a variety of hydrophilic bile acids have been reported to have ameliorative effects in neurodegenerative diseases. Taurochenodeoxycholic acid (TCDCA) is one of the components of bile acids. However, whether TCDCA can treat PD and its specific mechanism is unclear. In this study, 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridine (MPTP)-induced PD model mice were established to investigate the effects of TCDCA on PD model mice and the impact of microglia-mediated neuroinflammation. Concurrently, in vitro cell experiments utilized the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced BV-2 microglial inflammation model to further investigate the effect and mechanism of TCDCA in inhibiting neuroinflammation. TCDCA effectively improved dyskinesia, attenuated dopaminergic neuronal damage in the substantia nigra and striatum, and inhibited α-Synuclein (α-Syn) expression in the substantia nigra of PD mice. TCDCA significantly inhibited microglia and astrocyte activation in the substantia nigra of PD mice, and decreased the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) and protein expressions of inflammatory factors. In addition, TCDCA was found to inhibit nitric oxide release and reactive oxygen species production in LPS-stimulated BV2 microglia. Furthermore, TCDCA suppressed the production of inflammatory factors, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), both in vivo and in vitro. Meanwhile, TCDCA significantly promoted Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5) protein expression and inhibited the phosphorylation of serine/threonine kinase B (AKT), nuclear factor κB (NFκB) and inhibitor of NFκB (IκBα). TCDCA promoted autophagy in vivo and in vitro by increasing adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation, inhibiting mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) phosphorylation, increasing LC3II/LC3I and Beclin1 expression, and decreasing P62 expression. Furthermore, TCDCA demonstrated mitochondrial protection by enhancing the expression of PTEN induced putative kinase 1 (Pink1) and Parkin. However, knockdown of TGR5 expression partially counteracted the inhibitory effect of TCDCA on LPS-treated BV-2 cells. Our results manifested that TCDCA activated autophagy and inhibited microglia-mediated neuroinflammation in experimental PD models probably through regulation of AKT/NFκB, AMPK/mTOR and Pink1/Parkin signaling pathways via activation of TGR5.

Effect of probiotics on C-reactive protein levels in schizophrenia: Evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory markers play a pivotal role in schizophrenia, as they provide insight into the neuroinflammatory processes occurring in the context of the disorder. Elevated levels of these markers, particularly C-reactive protein (CRP), can indicate an underlying immune system dysregulation, potentially influencing symptom severity and progression. Recognizing these markers has led to investigate the use of probiotics as an adjuvant to improve the treatment of schizophrenia. The main objective of this study is to rigorously evaluate the efficacy of probiotics in reducing plasma levels of CRP in patients with schizophrenia.

METHODS

A systematic search and meta-analysis were conducted to review randomized clinical trials following the PRISMA methodology. The following search strategy ((SCHIZO* OR PSYCHOTIC OR PSYCHOSES) AND (PROBIOTIC* OR BIFIDOBACTER* OR LACTOBACILL*)) was used for searching publications between June-December 2024 on the PubMed, Web of Science, and APA PsycINFO databases. Individual study quality was assessed with the Cochrane risk of bias (RoB2) and the certainty of total evidence was assessed with the GRADE system.

RESULTS

The primary outcome assessed was the impact of probiotic supplementation on plasma CRP levels. Out of 78 studies initially identified, 4 were finally included in the meta-analysis. Three out four studies found a significant reduction in high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels in the supplemented compared with the placebo group. The pooled analysis revealed a significant reduction in CRP levels with probiotic supplementation, with a standardized mean difference (SMD) of -0.46, (95 % CI -0.719; -0.201; p = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The synthesis and meta-analysis of available literature provide evidence for the potential role of probiotics in the reduction of serum CRP in schizophrenia compared with placebo. However, more clinical trials with better control of experimental design are needed before a clear recommendation as adjuvant therapy can be made.

Influence of antipsychotic drugs on microglia-mediated neuroinflammation in schizophrenia: perspectives in an astrocyte-microglia co-culture model

Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder with a strong lifetime impact on patients' health and wellbeing. Usually, symptomatic treatment includes typical or atypical antipsychotics. Study findings show an involvement of low-grade inflammation (blood, brain parenchyma, and cerebrospinal fluid) in schizophrenia. Moreover, experimental and neuropathological evidence suggests that reactive microglia, which are the main resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), have a negative impact on the differentiation and function of oligodendrocytes, glial progenitor cells, and astrocytes, which results in the disruption of neuronal networks and dysregulated synaptic transmission, contributing to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Here, the role of microglial cells related to neuroinflammation in schizophrenia was discussed to be essential. This review aims to summarize the evidence for the influence of antipsychotics on microglial inflammatory mechanisms in schizophrenia. Furthermore, we propose an established astrocyte-microglia co-culture model for testing regulatory mechanisms and examining the effects of antipsychotics on glia-mediated neuroinflammation. This could lead to a better understanding of how typical and atypical antipsychotics can be used to address positive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia and comorbidities like inflammatory diseases or the status of low-grade inflammation.

Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia: An Update on Research Assessment and the Current and Upcoming Treatment Landscape

The negative symptoms of schizophrenia include diminished emotional expression, avolition, alogia, anhedonia, and asociality, and due to their low responsiveness to available treatments, are a primary driver of functional disability in schizophrenia. This narrative review has the aim of providing a comprehensive overview of the current research developments in the treatment of negative symptoms in schizophrenia, and begins by introducing the concepts of primary, secondary, prominent, predominant, and broadly defined negative symptoms. We then compare and contrast commonly used research assessment scales for negative symptoms and review the evidence for the specific utility of widely available off-label and investigational treatments that have been studied for negative symptoms. Mechanism of action/putative treatments included are antipsychotics (D2R antagonists), N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) and other glutamatergic modulators, serotonin receptor (5-HTR) modulators, anti-inflammatory agents, antidepressants, pro-dopaminergic modulators (non-D2R antagonists), acetylcholine modulators, oxytocin, and phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors. With the caveat that no compounds are definitively proven as gold-standard treatments for broadly defined negative symptoms, the evidence base supports several potentially beneficial off-label and investigational medications for treating negative symptoms in schizophrenia, such as monotherapy with cariprazine, olanzapine, clozapine, and amisulpride, or adjunctive use of memantine, setrons such as ondansetron, minocycline, and antidepressants. These medications are widely available worldwide, generally tolerable and could be considered for an off-label, time-limited trial for a predesignated period of time, after which a decision to switch or stay can be made based on clinical response. Among investigational medications, NMDAR agonists, muscarinic agonists, and LB-102 remain under study. Suggestions for future research include reducing placebo effects by designing studies with a smaller number of high-quality study sites, potentially increasing the use of more precise rating scales for negative symptoms, and focused studies in people with predominant negative symptoms.

Peering into the mind: unraveling schizophrenia's secrets using models

Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a complex mental disorder characterized by a range of symptoms, including positive and negative symptoms, as well as cognitive impairments. Despite the extensive research, the underlying neurobiology of SCZ remain elusive. To overcome this challenge, the use of diverse laboratory modeling techniques, encompassing cellular and animal models, and innovative approaches like induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived neuronal cultures or brain organoids and genetically engineered animal models, has been crucial. Immortalized cellular models provide controlled environments for investigating the molecular and neurochemical pathways involved in neuronal function, while iPSCs and brain organoids, derived from patient-specific sources, offer significant advantage in translational research by facilitating direct comparisons of cellular phenotypes between patient-derived neurons and healthy-control neurons. Animal models can recapitulate the different psychopathological aspects that should be modeled, offering valuable insights into the neurobiology of SCZ. In addition, invertebrates' models are genetically tractable and offer a powerful approach to dissect the core genetic underpinnings of SCZ, while vertebrate models, especially mammals, with their more complex nervous systems and behavioral repertoire, provide a closer approximation of the human condition to study SCZ-related traits. This narrative review provides a comprehensive overview of the diverse modeling approaches, critically evaluating their strengths and limitations. By synthesizing knowledge from these models, this review offers a valuable source for researchers, clinicians, and stakeholders alike. Integrating findings across these different models may allow us to build a more holistic picture of SCZ pathophysiology, facilitating the exploration of new research avenues and informed decision-making for interventions.

Regulation of the microglial polarization for alleviating neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis and therapeutics of major depressive disorder

Major depressive disorder (MDD), as a multimodal neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative illness with high prevalence and disability rates, has become a burden to world health and the economy that affects millions of individuals worldwide. Neuroinflammation, an atypical immune response occurring in the brain, is currently gaining more attention due to its association with MDD. Microglia, as immune sentinels, have a vital function in regulating neuroinflammatory reactions in the immune system of the central nervous system. From the perspective of steady-state branching states, they can transition phenotypes between two extremes, namely, M1 and M2 phenotypes are pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory, respectively. It has an intermediate transition state characterized by different transcriptional features and the release of inflammatory mediators. The timing regulation of inflammatory cytokine release is crucial for damage control and guiding microglia back to a steady state. The dysregulation can lead to exorbitant tissue injury and neuronal mortality, and targeting the cellular signaling pathway that serves as the regulatory basis for microglia is considered an essential pathway for treating MDD. However, the specific intervention targets and mechanisms of microglial activation pathways in neuroinflammation are still unclear. Therefore, the present review summarized and discussed various signaling pathways and effective intervention targets that trigger the activation of microglia from its branching state and emphasizes the mechanism of microglia-mediated neuroinflammation associated with MDD.

Minocycline Ameliorates Staphylococcus aureus-Induced Neuroinflammation and Anxiety-like Behaviors by Regulating the TLR2 and STAT3 Pathways in Microglia

Background: Anxiety disorders are the most common mental illnesses. S. aureus is a Gram-positive opportunistic pathogen most commonly associated with anxiety-like behaviors. Minocycline ameliorates Gram-negative bacterial LPS-induced anxiety-like behaviors by suppressing microglia activation. However, the effects of minocycline on anxiety-like behaviors caused by S. aureus infections have received little attention. In this study, we aimed to investigate the molecular mechanism and effect of minocycline on anxiety-like behaviors caused by S. aureus infection. Methods: BV2 and N9 microglial cells were treated in vitro. The effects of minocycline on lipoteichoic acid (LTA)-stimulated inflammatory responses, STAT3 activation, and GLS1 expression were assessed using Western blotting, and cytokine secretion was determined using an ELISA. A mouse model was used to evaluate the capacity of minocycline to ameliorate anxiety-like behaviors caused by S. aureus infection. Results: We found that ≥100 μmol/L of minocycline remarkably attenuated LTA-induced TLR2 signaling pathway activation and proinflammatory cytokine expression in microglial cells. Minocycline prevented LTA-stimulated STAT3 activation and GLS1 expression in vitro. LTA-induced TLR2, TNF-α, IL-6, and GLS1 expression was markedly reduced by the inhibition of STAT3 phosphorylation. Mice were pretreated with 50 mg/kg of minocycline, significantly attenuating microglial activation and neuroinflammation. Minocycline also effectively alleviated the anxiety-like behaviors induced by S. aureus infection. Conclusions: Our findings indicate that minocycline alleviates S. aureus infection-induced anxiety-like behaviors by suppressing microglia activation.

The Role of Neuroglia in the Development and Progression of Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a complex heterogenous disorder thought to be caused by interactions between genetic and environmental factors. The theories developed to explain the etiology of schizophrenia have focused largely on the dysfunction of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin and glutamate with their receptors, although research in the past several decades has indicated strongly that other factors are also involved and that the role of neuroglial cells in psychotic disorders including schizophrenia should be given more attention. Although glia were originally thought to be present in the brain only to support neurons in a physical, metabolic and nutritional capacity, it has become apparent that these cells have a variety of important physiological roles and that abnormalities in their function may make significant contributions to the symptoms of schizophrenia. In the present paper, we review the interactions of brain microglia, astrocytes and oligodendroglia with aspects such as transmitter dysregulation, neuro-inflammation, oxidative stress, synaptic function, the gut microbiome, myelination and the blood-brain barrier that appear to affect the cause, development and treatment of schizophrenia. We also review crosstalk between microglia, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes and the effects of antipsychotics on neuroglia. Problems associated with studies on specific biomarkers for glia in schizophrenia are discussed.

ABBV-744 alleviates LPS-induced neuroinflammation via regulation of BATF2-IRF4-STAT1/3/5 axis

Suppression of neuroinflammation using small molecule compounds targeting the key pathways in microglial inflammation has attracted great interest. Recently, increasing attention has been gained to the role of the second bromodomain (BD2) of the bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) proteins, while its effect and molecular mechanism on microglial inflammation has not yet been explored. In this study, we evaluated the therapeutic effects of ABBV-744, a BD2 high selective BET inhibitor, on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced microglial inflammation in vitro and in vivo, and explored the key pathways by which ABBV-744 regulated microglia-mediated neuroinflammation. We found that pretreatment of ABBV-744 concentration-dependently inhibited the expression of LPS-induced inflammatory mediators/enzymes including NO, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, and COX-2 in BV-2 microglial cells. These effects were validated in LPS-treated primary microglial cells. Furthermore, we observed that administration of ABBV-744 significantly alleviated LPS-induced activation of microglia and transcriptional levels of pro-inflammatory factors TNF-α and IL-1β in mouse hippocampus and cortex. RNA-Sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis revealed that ABBV-744 induced 508 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in LPS-stimulated BV-2 cells, and gene enrichment and gene expression network analysis verified its regulation on activated microglial genes and inflammatory pathways. We demonstrated that pretreatment of ABBV-744 significantly reduced the expression levels of basic leucine zipper ATF-like transcription factor 2 (BATF2) and interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4), and suppressed JAK-STAT signaling pathway in LPS-stimulated BV-2 cells and mice, suggesting that the anti-neuroinflammatory effect of ABBV-744 might be associated with regulation of BATF2-IRF4-STAT1/3/5 pathway, which was confirmed by gene knockdown experiments. This study demonstrates the effect of a BD2 high selective BET inhibitor, ABBV-744, against microglial inflammation, and reveals a BATF2-IRF4-STAT1/3/5 pathway in regulation of microglial inflammation, which might provide new clues for discovery of effective therapeutic strategy against neuroinflammation.

The Interrelationships between Cytokines and Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review

Schizophrenia (SCZ) imposes a significant burden on patients and their families because of its high prevalence rate and disabling nature. Given the lack of definitive conclusions regarding its pathogenesis, physicians heavily rely on patients' subjective symptom descriptions for diagnosis because reliable diagnostic biomarkers are currently unavailable. The role of the inflammatory response in the pathogenesis of SCZ has been supported by some studies. The findings of these studies showed abnormal changes in the levels of inflammatory factors, such as cytokines (CKs), in both peripheral blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) among individuals affected by SCZ. The findings imply that inflammatory factors could potentially function as risk indicators for the onset of SCZ. Consequently, researchers have directed their attention towards investigating the potential utility of CKs as viable biomarkers for diagnosing SCZ. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing disease-specific components exhibit remarkable stability and abundance, making them promising candidates for biomarker discovery across various diseases. CKs encapsulated within EVs secreted by immune cells offer valuable insights into disease progression. This review presents a comprehensive analysis summarizing the relationship between CKs and SCZ and emphasizes the vital role of CKs encapsulated within EVs in the pathogenesis and development of SCZ.

Pro-neuroinflammatory and neurotoxic potential of extracellular histones H1 and H3

Histones organize DNA within cellular nuclei, but they can be released from damaged cells. In peripheral tissues extracellular histones act as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) inducing pro-inflammatory activation of immune cells. Limited studies have considered DAMP-like activity of histones in the central nervous system (CNS); therefore, we studied the effects of extracellular histones on microglia, the CNS immunocytes, and on neuronal cells. Both the linker histone H1 and the core histone H3 induced pro-inflammatory activation of microglia-like cells by upregulating their secretion of NO and cytokines, including interferon-γ-inducible protein 10 (IP-10) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF). The selective inhibitors MMG-11 and TAK-242 were used to demonstrate involvement of toll-like receptors (TLR) 2 and 4, respectively, in H1-induced NO secretion by BV-2 microglia. H1, but not H3, downregulated the phagocytic activity of BV-2 microglia. H1 was also directly toxic to all neuronal cell types studied. We conclude that H1, and to a lesser extent H3, when released extracellularly, have the potential to act as a CNS DAMPs. Inhibition of the DAMP-like effects of extracellular histones on microglia and their neurotoxic activity represents a potential strategy for combating neurodegenerative diseases that are characterized by the adverse activation of microglia and neuronal death.

The Long-Acting Serine Protease Inhibitor mPEG-SPA-MDSPI16 Alleviates LPS-Induced Acute Lung Injury

Anti-inflammatory drugs have become the second-largest class of common drugs after anti-infective drugs in animal clinical care worldwide and are often combined with other drugs to treat fever and viral diseases caused by various factors. In our previous study, a novel serine protease inhibitor-encoding gene (MDSPI16) with improved anti-inflammatory activity was selected from a constructed suppressive subducted hybridization library of housefly larvae. This protein could easily induce an immune response in animals and had a short half-life, which limited its wide application in the clinic. Thus, in this study, mPEG-succinimidyl propionate (mPEG-SPA, Mw = 5 kDa) was used to molecularly modify the MDSPI16 protein, and the modified product mPEG-SPA-MDSPI16, which strongly inhibited elastase production, was purified. It had good stability and safety, low immunogenicity, and a long half-life, and the IC50 for elastase was 86 nM. mPEG-SPA-MDSPI16 effectively inhibited the expression of neutrophil elastase and decreased ROS levels. Moreover, mPEG-SPA-MDSPI16 exerted anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway and the MAPK signaling pathway in neutrophils. It also exerted therapeutic effects on a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI) mouse model. In summary, mPEG-SPA-MDSPI16 is a novel anti-inflammatory protein modified with PEG that has the advantages of safety, nontoxicity, improved stability, and strong anti-inflammatory activity in vivo and in vitro and is expected to become an effective anti-inflammatory drug.

Established and emerging techniques for the study of microglia: visualization, depletion, and fate mapping

The central nervous system (CNS) is an essential hub for neuronal communication. As a major component of the CNS, glial cells are vital in the maintenance and regulation of neuronal network dynamics. Research on microglia, the resident innate immune cells of the CNS, has advanced considerably in recent years, and our understanding of their diverse functions continues to grow. Microglia play critical roles in the formation and regulation of neuronal synapses, myelination, responses to injury, neurogenesis, inflammation, and many other physiological processes. In parallel with advances in microglial biology, cutting-edge techniques for the characterization of microglial properties have emerged with increasing depth and precision. Labeling tools and reporter models are important for the study of microglial morphology, ultrastructure, and dynamics, but also for microglial isolation, which is required to glean key phenotypic information through single-cell transcriptomics and other emerging approaches. Strategies for selective microglial depletion and modulation can provide novel insights into microglia-targeted treatment strategies in models of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative conditions, cancer, and autoimmunity. Finally, fate mapping has emerged as an important tool to answer fundamental questions about microglial biology, including their origin, migration, and proliferation throughout the lifetime of an organism. This review aims to provide a comprehensive discussion of these established and emerging techniques, with applications to the study of microglia in development, homeostasis, and CNS pathologies.

JAK-STAT signaling in inflammation and stress-related diseases: implications for therapeutic interventions

The Janus kinase-signal transducer and transcription activator pathway (JAK-STAT) serves as a cornerstone in cellular signaling, regulating physiological and pathological processes such as inflammation and stress. Dysregulation in this pathway can lead to severe immunodeficiencies and malignancies, and its role extends to neurotransduction and pro-inflammatory signaling mechanisms. Although JAK inhibitors (Jakinibs) have successfully treated immunological and inflammatory disorders, their application has generally been limited to diseases with similar pathogenic features. Despite the modest expression of JAK-STAT in the CNS, it is crucial for functions in the cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum, making it relevant in conditions like Parkinson's disease and other neuroinflammatory disorders. Furthermore, the influence of the pathway on serotonin receptors and phospholipase C has implications for stress and mood disorders. This review expands the understanding of JAK-STAT, moving beyond traditional immunological contexts to explore its role in stress-related disorders and CNS function. Recent findings, such as the effectiveness of Jakinibs in chronic conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, expand their therapeutic applicability. Advances in isoform-specific inhibitors, including filgotinib and upadacitinib, promise greater specificity with fewer off-target effects. Combination therapies, involving Jakinibs and monoclonal antibodies, aiming to enhance therapeutic specificity and efficacy also give great hope. Overall, this review bridges the gap between basic science and clinical application, elucidating the complex influence of the JAK-STAT pathway on human health and guiding future interventions.

The Janus face of antipsychotics in glial cells: Focus on glioprotection

Antipsychotics are commonly prescribed to treat several neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia, mania in bipolar disorder, autism spectrum disorder, delirium, and organic or secondary psychosis, for example, in dementias such as Alzheimer's disease. There is evidence that typical antipsychotics such as haloperidol are more effective in reducing positive symptoms than negative symptoms and/or cognitive deficits. In contrast, atypical antipsychotic agents have gained popularity over typical antipsychotics, due to fewer extrapyramidal side effects and their theoretical efficacy in controlling both positive and negative symptoms. Although these therapies focus on neuron-based therapeutic schemes, glial cells have been recognized as important regulators of the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders, as well as targets to improve the efficacy of these drugs. Glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia) are critical for the central nervous system in both physiological and pathological conditions. Astrocytes are the most abundant glial cells and play important roles in brain homeostasis, regulating neurotransmitter systems and gliotransmission, since they express a wide variety of functional receptors for different neurotransmitters. In addition, converging lines of evidence indicate that psychiatric disorders are commonly associated with the triad neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and excitotoxicity, and that glial cells may contribute to the gliotoxicity process. Conversely, glioprotective molecules attenuate glial damage by generating specific responses that can protect glial cells themselves and/or neurons, resulting in improved central nervous system (CNS) functioning. In this regard, resveratrol is well-recognized as a glioprotective molecule, including in clinical studies of schizophrenia and autism. This review will provide a summary of the dual role of antipsychotics on neurochemical parameters associated with glial functions and will highlight the potential activity of glioprotective molecules to improve the action of antipsychotics.

Exploring the potential hypothalamic role in mediating cisplatin-induced negative energy balance

Cisplatin is a chemotherapeutic drug commonly used for treating different types of cancer. However, long-term use can lead to side effects, including anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and weight loss, which negatively affect the patient's quality of life and ability to undergo chemotherapy. This study aimed to investigate the mechanisms underlying the development of a negative energy balance during cisplatin treatment. Mice treated with cisplatin exhibit reduced food intake, body weight, and energy expenditure. We observed altered neuronal activity in the hypothalamic nuclei involved in the regulation of energy metabolism in cisplatin-treated mice. In addition, we observed activation of microglia and inflammation in the hypothalamus following treatment with cisplatin. Consistent with this finding, inhibition of microglial activation effectively rescued cisplatin-induced anorexia and body weight loss. The present study identified the role of hypothalamic neurons and inflammation linked to microglial activation in the anorexia and body weight loss observed during cisplatin treatment. These findings provide insight into the mechanisms underlying the development of metabolic abnormalities during cisplatin treatment and suggest new strategies for managing these side effects.