Direct and lost productivity costs associated with avoidable hospital admissions

Is avoidable diabetes-related hospitalization in older patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus associated with increased health expenditure?: A nationwide retrospective cohort study in South Korea

Objective

With South Korea's population aging rapidly, the number of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is expected to rise, leading to worsened health outcomes and potentially straining healthcare financing. This study aimed to investigate how avoidable diabetes-related hospitalizations affect short- and long-term health expenditures.

Methods

Data from the National Health Insurance Service-Senior cohort from 2008 to 2019 in South Korea. A total of 27,081 participants aged 60 years and older who were diagnosed with T2DM were included in the study. The independent variable in this study was avoidable diabetes-related hospitalization according to the ICD-10 criteria "E11". The outcome measures included one- and five-year health expenditures. Regression analysis was performed using the generalized estimating equation (GEE) with a gamma distribution and log-link function. Inverse Probability of Treatment Weighting (IPTW) analysis was conducted to enhance the robustness of the results.

Results

Out of the 27,081 participants, 685 patients (2.5 %) experienced avoidable diabetes-related hospitalizations. GEE analysis with IPTW weights revealed that participants who experienced avoidable hospitalizations had a higher risk of increased health expenditures (one-year: relative risk (RR) 1.83, 95 % CI 1.76-1.91; five-year: RR 1.63, 95 % CI 1.57-1.69). Consistent patterns were observed even without weighting (one-year: RR 1.85, 95 % CI 1.68-2.04; five-year: RR 1.60, 95 % CI 1.47-1.74).

Conclusions

Our findings highlight the importance of continuous health management to prevent avoidable hospitalization, thereby promoting health and ensuring the financial stability of older patients with T2DM within the healthcare insurance system.

The role of telemedicine towards improved sustainability in healthcare and societal productivity in Turkey

The healthcare systems of low and middle-income countries suffer from lack of resources that could be remedied by employing novel care strategies such as telemedicine [1]. Here, the hypothetical impact of delivering telemedicine care on environment and society in three busy cardio-vascular clinics in Istanbul, Turkey, is examined. The study exploits demographics, wages, productivity, and patient-specific data to develop a hypothetical telemedicine framework for the Turkish healthcare landscape. Specifically, the distance traveled and travel time to receive care using location of the clinics and patients addresses seeking care are tabulated. Data from August 3, 2015, to January 25, 2023 involves 45,602 unique encounters with 448 unique diagnoses recorded for the patient encounters, where the patients in the top 5% of the most common diagnoses traveled 23.82 ± 96.3 km to reach the clinics. Based on our model, telemedicine care for cardiovascular diseases would have saved 656,258 km if all patients were to take the first visit in person followed by telemedicine visits in lieu of face-to-face care for all visits. The travel-associated carbon footprint and wage losses for in-person care is calculated and exploiting telemedicine could have saved approximately 30% carbon footprint and prevented approximately $503,752.8 wage loss. It is possible that telemedicine could ease the burden on patients, environment, increase access, and prevent the wage losses caused by unnecessary hospital visits.

Early characterization of an adult population at an insurer's point of entry as an opportunity to identify hospitalization risk

Introduction

Health Benefit Plan Administrators must manage the health risk of their members. Therefore, health characterization is performed from enrollment to support decision-making and timely intervention.

Objective

To analyze the historical results of characterizing the adult population on admission to the insurance company in relation to the demand for all-cause and psychiatric hospitalization services.

Materials and Methods

An observational cross-sectional studywith members over 18 years of age, in which an analysis was made of the characterization of the adult population of the insurer and its association with the use of medicalconsultationservicesinprimarycareandall-causeandpsychiatric hospitalizations. Bivariate and multivariate analysis was made, and odds ratios (OR) were calculated in logistic regression.

Results

Variables significantly associated with having an all-cause hospitalization were identified: having referred history of heart disease OR=1.71(95%CI: 1.33; 2.20), respiratory disease OR= 1. 30(95%CI: 1.04; 1.61), chronic kidney disease OR=1.66(95%CI: 1.13; 2.45), cancer OR=1.65(95%CI: 1.14; 2.40), taking any medication permanently OR=1.35(95%CI: 1.174; 1.56) and smoking OR=1.44(95%CI: 1.12; 1.85). For psychiatric hospitalizations, a history of discouragement, depression, or little hope was relevant with OR=5.12(95%CI: 1.89; 13.87).

Discussion

The characterization of patients during enrolment allowed the identification of predictor variables of hospitalization, guiding management from the primary care level minimizing costs and catastrophic health events.

Conclusion

The timely identification of specific patient profiles allows timely actions to minimize health costs and catastrophic health events.

Cost-benefit analysis of the CoCare intervention to improve medical care in long-term care nursing homes: an analysis based on claims data

BACKGROUND

Providing adequate medical care to nursing home residents is challenging. Transfers to emergency departments are frequent, although often avoidable. We conducted the complex CoCare intervention with the aim to optimize nursing staff-physician collaboration to reduce avoidable hospital admissions and ambulance transportations, thereby reducing costs.

METHODS

This prospective, non-randomized study, based on German insurance data, includes residents in nursing homes. Health care cost from a payer perspective and cost-savings of such a complex intervention were investigated. The utilisation of services after implementation of the intervention was compared with services in previous quarters as well as services in the control group. To compensate for remaining differences in resident characteristics between intervention and control group, a propensity score was determined and adjusted for in the regression analyses.

RESULTS

The study population included 1240 residents in the intervention and 7552 in the control group. Total costs of medical services utilisation were reduced by €468.56 (p < 0.001) per resident and quarter in the intervention group. Hospital stays were reduced by 0.08 (p = 0.001) and patient transports by 0.19 (p = 0.049). This led to 1.66 (p < 0.001) avoided hospital days or €621.37 (p < 0.001) in costs-savings of inpatient services. More services were billed by general practitioners in the intervention group, which led to additional costs of €97.89 (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The benefits of our intervention clearly exceed its costs. In the intervention group, avoided hospital admissions led to additional outpatient billing. This indicates that such a multifactorial intervention program can be cost-saving and improve medical care in long-term care homes.

Regional Health Disparities in Hypertension-Related Hospitalization of Hypertensive Patients: A Nationwide Population-Based Nested Case-Control Study

Objective: This study aims to explore regional health disparities in hypertension-related hospitalizations and confirm this difference according to the states of continuity of care (COC). Methods: We used the National Health Insurance Service National Sample Cohort data from 2002 to 2019. The dependent variable, hypertension-related hospitalization, included hospitalization for hypertensive diseases (I10-I13, I15), ischemic heart disease (I20-I25), and cerebrovascular disease (I60-I69). Nested case-control matching was performed according to age, sex, and income level. We compared hypertension-related hospitalization fractions in urban and rural areas by classifying them according to the state of COC and analyzed them using conditional logistic regression suitable for matched data. Results: The odds of hypertension-related hospitalization of hypertensive patients were higher in the rural areas than in the urban areas; however, as the COC increased, the difference decreased. There was no change in the results according to the COC observation period. Conclusion: To reduce regional health disparities, both the promotion of COC and the improvement of the quality of primary care must be achieved.

Direct healthcare cost of hospital admissions for chronic non-communicable diseases sensitive to primary care in the elderly

Aging has imposed changes in the epidemiological profile and an increase in the prevalence of chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCDs). The aim was to estimate the direct cost related to hospital admissions of elderly people affected by CNCDs (hypertension, heart failure and diabetes mellitus) sensitive to primary care, in a medium-sized hospital, in the period 2015-2019. Secondly, we investigated whether clinical and demographic factors explain the costs and length of stay. The medical records of 165 elderly people were analyzed. We found a predominance of women with a mean age of 76.9 years. The most frequent cause of hospitalization was heart failure (62%), and the average length of stay was 9.5 days, and 16% of hospitalizations corresponded to rehospitalizations. Of these, 81% were caused by complications from the previous hospitalization. The estimated total cost was R$ 3 million. Male patients had a longer hospital stay compared to female patients. Hypertension and the total number of procedures were significant predictors of cost and length of stay. We found that in 5 years, the costs of hospital admissions for conditions sensitive to primary care in the elderly are considerable, indicating the relevance of investments in primary care.

Direct healthcare cost of hospital admissions for chronic non-communicable diseases sensitive to primary care in the elderly

Abstract Aging has imposed changes in the epidemiological profile and an increase in the prevalence of chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCDs). The aim was to estimate the direct cost related to hospital admissions of elderly people affected by CNCDs (hypertension, heart failure and diabetes mellitus) sensitive to primary care, in a medium-sized hospital, in the period 2015-2019. Secondly, we investigated whether clinical and demographic factors explain the costs and length of stay. The medical records of 165 elderly people were analyzed. We found a predominance of women with a mean age of 76.9 years. The most frequent cause of hospitalization was heart failure (62%), and the average length of stay was 9.5 days, and 16% of hospitalizations corresponded to rehospitalizations. Of these, 81% were caused by complications from the previous hospitalization. The estimated total cost was R$ 3 million. Male patients had a longer hospital stay compared to female patients. Hypertension and the total number of procedures were significant predictors of cost and length of stay. We found that in 5 years, the costs of hospital admissions for conditions sensitive to primary care in the elderly are considerable, indicating the relevance of investments in primary care.

Clinical Decision Support for Glycemic Management Reduces Hospital Length of Stay

OBJECTIVE

Dysglycemia influences hospital outcomes and resource utilization. Clinical decision support (CDS) holds promise for optimizing care by overcoming management barriers. This study assessed the impact on hospital length of stay (LOS) of an alert-based CDS tool in the electronic medical record that detected dysglycemia or inappropriate insulin use, coined as gaps in care (GIC).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Using a 12-month interrupted time series among hospitalized persons aged ≥18 years, our CDS tool identified GIC and, when active, provided recommendations. We compared LOS during 6-month-long active and inactive periods using linear models for repeated measures, multiple comparison adjustment, and mediation analysis.

RESULTS

Among 4,788 admissions with GIC, average LOS was shorter during the tool's active periods. LOS reductions occurred for all admissions with GIC (-5.7 h, P = 0.057), diabetes and hyperglycemia (-6.4 h, P = 0.054), stress hyperglycemia (-31.0 h, P = 0.054), patients admitted to medical services (-8.4 h, P = 0.039), and recurrent hypoglycemia (-29.1 h, P = 0.074). Subgroup analysis showed significantly shorter LOS in recurrent hypoglycemia with three events (-82.3 h, P = 0.006) and nonsignificant in two (-5.2 h, P = 0.655) and four or more (-14.8 h, P = 0.746). Among 22,395 admissions with GIC (4,788, 21%) and without GIC (17,607, 79%), LOS reduction during the active period was 1.8 h (P = 0.053). When recommendations were provided, the active tool indirectly and significantly contributed to shortening LOS through its influence on GIC events during admissions with at least one GIC (P = 0.027), diabetes and hyperglycemia (P = 0.028), and medical services (P = 0.019).

CONCLUSIONS

Use of the alert-based CDS tool to address inpatient management of dysglycemia contributed to reducing LOS, which may reduce costs and improve patient well-being.

The association of care satisfaction and COVID-19 contact restrictions with quality of life in long-term care homes residents in Germany: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Quality of life (QoL) is a widely recognised outcome in residents of long-term care homes. However, little is known about the impact of care satisfaction on QoL. The aim of this study was to assess the association between care satisfaction and QoL in residents of long-term care homes. Additionally, we were able to assess the impact of the Covid-19 contact restrictions on QoL.

METHODS

We applied a cross-sectional study in N = 40 long-term care homes in Baden-Wuerttemberg, Germany. Using regression models, we analysed the association between QoL (operationalised through the World Health Organization Quality of Life Assessment-Old Module [WHOQOL-OLD]) and self-rated nursing care satisfaction. The date on which the questionnaire was completed was used to calculate whether the completion was prior the emergence of the Covid-19 contact restrictions. Further potential confounders were included in the analysis.

RESULTS

N = 419 residents of long-term care homes participated. Explained variance of QoL was low in our models at 2 to 16%. Self-rated nursing care satisfaction was the strongest predictor of QoL and positively linked to the following subdimensions of QoL: autonomy; past, present and future activities; social participation; intimacy. The Covid-19 contact restrictions were negatively linked to social participation.

CONCLUSION

Nursing care satisfaction was associated with QoL in residents of long-term care homes. Future research should focus on the direction of the association and different aspects of nursing care satisfaction with QoL. Furthermore, we showed the impact of contact restriction during the Covid-19 lockdown on social participation.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

WHO UTN: U1111-1196-6611; DRKS-ID: DRKS00012703 (Date of Registration in DRKS: 2017/08/23).

Barriers and facilitators for implementation of a complex health services intervention in long-term care homes: a qualitative study using focus groups

Background

With rising numbers of elderly people living in nursing homes in Germany, the need for on-site primary care is increasing. A lack of primary care in nursing homes can lead to unnecessary hospitalization, higher mortality, and morbidity in the elderly. The project CoCare (“coordinated medical care”) has therefore implemented a complex health intervention in nursing homes, using inter alia, regular medical rounds, a shared patient medical record and medication checks, with the aim of improving the coordination of medical care. This study reports upon the results of a qualitative study assessing the perceived barriers and facilitators of the implementation of CoCare by stakeholders.

Methods

Focus group interviews were held between October 2018 and November 2019 with nurses, general practitioners and GP’s assistants working or consulting in a participating nursing home. A semi-structured modular guideline was used to ask participants for their opinion on different aspects of CoCare and which barriers and facilitators they perceived. Focus groups were analyzed using qualitative content analysis.

Results

In total, N = 11 focus group interviews with N = 74 participants were conducted. We found six themes describing barriers and facilitators in respect of the implementation of CoCare: understaffing, bureaucracy, complexity, structural barriers, financial compensation, communication and collaboration. Furthermore, participants described the incorporation of the intervention into standard care.

Conclusion

Barriers perceived by stakeholders are well known in the literature (e.g. understaffing and complexity). However, CoCare provides a good structure to overcome barriers and some barriers will dissolve after implementation into routine care (e.g. bureaucracy). In contrast, especially communication and collaboration were perceived as facilitators in CoCare, with the project being received as a team building intervention itself.

Trial registration

WHO UTN: U1111–1196-6611; DRKS-ID: DRKS00012703 (Date of Registration in DRKS: 2017 Aug 23).

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12877-021-02579-y.

The impact of a COVID-19 lockdown on work productivity under good and poor compliance

BACKGROUND

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, governments across the globe have imposed strict social distancing measures. Public compliance to such measures is essential for their success, yet the economic consequences of compliance are unknown. This is the first study to analyze the effects of good compliance compared with poor compliance to a COVID-19 suppression strategy (i.e. lockdown) on work productivity.

METHODS

We estimate the differences in work productivity comparing a scenario of good compliance with one of poor compliance to the UK government COVID-19 suppression strategy. We use projections of the impact of the UK suppression strategy on mortality and morbidity from an individual-based epidemiological model combined with an economic model representative of the labour force in Wales and England.

RESULTS

We find that productivity effects of good compliance significantly exceed those of poor compliance and increase with the duration of the lockdown. After 3 months of the lockdown, work productivity in good compliance is £398.58 million higher compared with that of poor compliance; 75% of the differences is explained by productivity effects due to morbidity and non-health reasons and 25% attributed to avoided losses due to pre-mature mortality.

CONCLUSION

Good compliance to social distancing measures exceeds positive economic effects, in addition to health benefits. This is an important finding for current economic and health policy. It highlights the importance to set clear guidelines for the public, to build trust and support for the rules and if necessary, to enforce good compliance to social distancing measures.

The Perceived Risk of Hospitalization in Primary Health Care - The Importance of Multidimensional Assessment

Ageing has increased the use of health services, with a corresponding rise in avoidable hospitalizations. We aimed to assess and characterize the perceived risk of hospitalization in primary health care (PHC). 118 individuals aged ≥65 years, PHC patients, were assessed using the Community Risk Assessment Instrument by their General Practitioner, who identified their perceived risk of hospitalization, at one year. The instrument is composed of three domains (mental state, daily living activities (ADLs) state and medical state). Multivariate logistic regression was used to identify the best model to predict the risk of hospitalization. Four models were estimated, one for each domain and one with all the variables of the instrument. 58.5% were identified as being at risk of hospitalization. The best predictive models are those that include functionality assessment variables (ADL model and Community Assessment of Risk Instrument model). The model that includes all the variables of three domains presents the best predictive value. Mobility problems (Odds Ratio (OR) 16.18 [CI: 1.63-160.53]), meal preparation (OR 10.93 [CI: 1.59-75.13]), communication (OR 6.91 [CI: 1.37-34.80]) and palliative care (OR 4.84 [CI: 1.14-20.58]) are the best predictors of hospitalization risk. The use of multidimensional assessment tools can allow the timely identification of people at risk, contributing to a reduction in hospitalizations.

Defining ambulatory care sensitive conditions for adults in Portugal

BACKGROUND

Ambulatory Care Sensitive Conditions (ACSCs) are health conditions for which adequate management, treatment and interventions delivered in the ambulatory care setting could potentially prevent hospitalization. Which conditions are sensitive to ambulatory care varies according to the scope of health care services and the context in which the indicator is used. The need for a country-specific validated list for Portugal has already been identified, but currently no national list exists. The objective of this study was to develop a list of Ambulatory Care Sensitive Conditions for Portugal.

METHODS

A modified web-based Delphi panel approach was designed, in order to determine which conditions can be considered ACSCs in the Portuguese adult population. The selected experts were general practitioners and internal medicine physicians identified by the most relevant Portuguese scientific societies. Experts were presented with previously identified ACSC and asked to select which could be accepted in the Portuguese context. They were also asked to identify other conditions they considered relevant. We estimated the number and cost of ACSC hospitalizations in 2017 in Portugal according to the identified conditions.

RESULTS

After three rounds the experts agreed on 34 of the 45 initially proposed items. Fourteen new conditions were proposed and four achieved consensus, namely uterine cervical cancer, colorectal cancer, thromboembolic venous disease and voluntary termination of pregnancy. In 2017 133,427 hospitalizations were for ACSC (15.7% of all hospitalizations). This represents a rate of 1685 per 100,000 adults. The most frequent diagnosis were pneumonia, heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/chronic bronchitis, urinary tract infection, colorectal cancer, hypertensive disease atrial fibrillation and complications of diabetes mellitus.

CONCLUSIONS

New ACSC were identified. It is expected that this list could be used henceforward by epidemiologic studies, health services research and for healthcare management purposes. ACSC lists should be updated frequently. Further research is necessary to increase the specificity of ACSC hospitalizations as an indicator of healthcare performance.