A systematic review of cognitive functioning in early treated adults with phenylketonuria

Management of patients with phenylketonuria (PKU) under enzyme replacement therapy: An Italian model (expert opinion)

Objective

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a metabolic disorder necessitating lifelong management to prevent severe neurological impairments. This paper synthesises clinical practices from Italian specialist centres to delineate a unified approach for administering pegvaliase, a novel enzyme replacement therapy for PKU.

Methods

Virtual meetings convened in September 2022, gathering a steering committee (SC) of experts from five Italian centres specialising in PKU. The SC reviewed, and discussed clinical practices, and formulated recommendations for pegvaliase treatment.

Results

The SC outlined a comprehensive treatment roadmap for PKU management with pegvaliase, emphasising the importance of multidisciplinary care teams, patient selection, pre-treatment evaluation, and education. Recommendations include initial hospital-based pegvaliase administration, regular monitoring of phenylalanine and tyrosine levels, dietary adjustments, and management of adverse events. A consensus was reached on the need for a digital database to manage treatment plans and enhance communication between healthcare professionals and patients.

Conclusion

The expert panel's consensus highlights the complexity of PKU management and the necessity for a coordinated, patient-centred approach. The recommendations aim to standardise care across Italian centres and provide a framework for integrating pegvaliase therapy into clinical practice, potentially informing international guidelines. Further research is warranted to evaluate the long-term impact of these practices on patient outcomes and quality of life.

Genotypic variants of the tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) biosynthesis genes in patients with hyperphenylalaninemia from different regions of Iran

BACKGROUND

Hyperphenylalaninemia (HPA) is a metabolic disorder classified into phenylalanine-4-hydroxylase (PAH) and non-PAH deficiency. The latter is produced by mutations in genes involved in the tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) biosynthesis pathway and DNAJC12 pathogenetic variants. The BH4 metabolism, including de novo biosynthesis involved genes (i.e., guanosine 5'-triphosphate cyclohydrolase I (GTPCH/GCH1), sepiapterin reductase (SR/SPR), 6-pyruvoyl-tetrahydropterin synthase (PTPS/PTS)), and two genes that play roles in cofactor regeneration pathway (i.e., dihydropteridine reductase (DHPR/QDPR) and pterin-4α-carbinolamine dehydratase (PCD/PCBD1)). The subsequent systemic hyperphenylalaninemia and monoamine neurotransmitter deficiency lead to neurological consequences. The high rate of consanguineous marriages in Iran substantially increases the incidence of BH4 deficiency.

METHODS

We utilized the Sanger sequencing technique in this study to investigate 14 Iranian patients with non-PAH deficiency. All affected subjects in this study had HPA and no mutation was detected in their PAH gene.

RESULTS

We successfully identified six mutant alleles in BH4-deficiency-associated genes, including three novel mutations: one in QDPR, one in PTS, and one in the PCBD1 gene, thus giving a definite diagnosis to these patients.

CONCLUSION

In this light, appropriate patient management may follow. The clinical effect of reported variants is essential for genetic counseling and prenatal diagnosis in the patients' families and significant for the improvement of precision medicine.

Cerebral blood flow and white matter alterations in adults with phenylketonuria

BACKGROUND

Phenylketonuria (PKU) represents a congenital metabolic defect that disrupts the process of converting phenylalanine (Phe) into tyrosine. Earlier investigations have revealed diminished cognitive performance and changes in brain structure and function (including the presence of white matter lesions) among individuals affected by PKU. However, there exists limited understanding regarding cerebral blood flow (CBF) and its potential associations with cognition, white matter lesions, and metabolic parameters in patients with PKU, which we therefore aimed to investigate in this study.

METHOD

Arterial spin labeling perfusion MRI was performed to measure CBF in 30 adults with early-treated classical PKU (median age 35.5 years) and 59 healthy controls (median age 30.0 years). For all participants, brain Phe levels were measured with 1H spectroscopy, and white matter lesions were rated by two neuroradiologists on T2 weighted images. White matter integrity was examined with diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). For patients only, concurrent plasma Phe levels were assessed after an overnight fasting period. Furthermore, past Phe levels were collected to estimate historical metabolic control. On the day of the MRI, each participant underwent a cognitive assessment measuring IQ and performance in executive functions, attention, and processing speed.

RESULTS

No significant group difference was observed in global CBF between patients and controls (F (1, 87) = 3.81, p = 0.054). Investigating CBF on the level of cerebral arterial territories, reduced CBF was observed in the left middle and posterior cerebral artery (MCA and PCA), with the most prominent reduction of CBF in the anterior subdivision of the MCA (F (1, 87) = 6.15, p = 0.015, surviving FDR correction). White matter lesions in patients were associated with cerebral blood flow reduction in the affected structure. Particularly, patients with lesions in the occipital lobe showed significant CBF reductions in the left PCA (U = 352, p = 0.013, surviving FDR correction). Additionally, axial diffusivity measured with DTI was positively associated with CBF in the ACA and PCA (surviving FDR correction). Cerebral blood flow did not correlate with cognitive performance or metabolic parameters.

CONCLUSION

The relationship between cerebral blood flow and white matter indicates a complex interplay between vascular health and white matter alterations in patients with PKU. It highlights the importance of considering a multifactorial model when investigating the impact of PKU on the brain.

Total choline intake and working memory performance in adults with phenylketonuria

BACKGROUND

Despite early diagnosis and compliance with phenylalanine (Phe)-restricted diets, many individuals with phenylketonuria (PKU) still exhibit neurological changes and experience deficits in working memory and other executive functions. Suboptimal choline intake may contribute to these impairments, but this relationship has not been previously investigated in PKU. The objective of this study was to determine if choline intake is correlated with working memory performance, and if this relationship is modified by diagnosis and metabolic control.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study that included 40 adults with PKU and 40 demographically matched healthy adults. Web-based neurocognitive tests were used to assess working memory performance and 3-day dietary records were collected to evaluate nutrient intake. Recent and historical blood Phe concentrations were collected as measures of metabolic control.

RESULTS

Working memory performance was 0.32 z-scores (95% CI 0.06, 0.58) lower, on average, in participants with PKU compared to participants without PKU, and this difference was not modified by total choline intake (F[1,75] = 0.85, p = 0.36). However, in a subgroup with complete historical blood Phe data, increased total choline intake was related to improved working memory outcomes among participants with well controlled PKU (Phe = 360 µmol/L) after adjusting for intellectual ability and mid-childhood Phe concentrations (average change in working memory per 100 mg change in choline = 0.11; 95% CI 0.02, 0.20; p = 0.02). There also was a trend, albeit nonsignificant (p = 0.10), for this association to be attenuated with increased Phe concentrations.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical monitoring of choline intake is essential for all individuals with PKU but may have important implications for working memory functioning among patients with good metabolic control. Results from this study should be confirmed in a larger controlled trial in people living with PKU.

Compromised white matter is related to lower cognitive performance in adults with phenylketonuria

Despite increasing knowledge about the effects of phenylketonuria on brain structure and function, it is uncertain whether white matter microstructure is affected and if it is linked to patients' metabolic control or cognitive performance. Thus, we quantitatively assessed white matter characteristics in adults with phenylketonuria and assessed their relationship to concurrent brain and blood phenylalanine levels, historical metabolic control and cognitive performance. Diffusion tensor imaging and ¹H spectroscopy were performed in 30 adults with early-treated classical phenylketonuria (median age 35.5 years) and 54 healthy controls (median age 29.3 years). Fractional anisotropy and mean, axial and radial diffusivity were investigated using tract-based spatial statistics, and white matter lesion load was evaluated. Brain phenylalanine levels were measured with ¹H spectroscopy whereas concurrent plasma phenylalanine levels were assessed after an overnight fast. Retrospective phenylalanine levels were collected to estimate historical metabolic control, and a neuropsychological evaluation assessed the performance in executive functions, attention and processing speed. Widespread reductions in mean diffusivity, axial diffusivity and fractional anisotropy occurred in patients compared to controls. Mean diffusivity and axial diffusivity were decreased in several white matter tracts and were most restricted in the optic radiation (effect size r_rb = 0.66 to 0.78, P < 0.001) and posterior corona radiata (r_rb = 0.83 to 0.90, P < 0.001). Lower fractional anisotropy was found in the optic radiation and posterior corona radiata (r_rb = 0.43 to 0.49, P < 0.001). White matter microstructure in patients was significantly associated with cognition. Specifically, inhibition was related to axial diffusivity in the external capsule (r_s = -0.69, P < 0.001) and the superior (r_s = -0.58, P < 0.001) and inferior longitudinal fasciculi (r_s = -0.60, P < 0.001). Cognitive flexibility was associated with mean diffusivity of the posterior limb of the internal capsule (r_s = -0.62, P < 0.001), and divided attention correlated with fractional anisotropy of the external capsule (r_s = -0.61, P < 0.001). Neither concurrent nor historical metabolic control was significantly associated with white matter microstructure. White matter lesions were present in 29 out of 30 patients (96.7%), most often in the parietal and occipital lobes. However, total white matter lesion load scores were unrelated to patients' cognitive performance and metabolic control. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that white matter alterations in early-treated phenylketonuria persist into adulthood, are most prominent in the posterior white matter and are likely to be driven by axonal damage. Furthermore, diffusion tensor imaging metrics in adults with phenylketonuria were related to performance in attention and executive functions.

Phenylketonuria and the brain

Classic phenylketonuria (PKU) is caused by defective activity of phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH), the enzyme that coverts phenylalanine (Phe) to tyrosine. Toxic accumulation of phenylalanine and its metabolites, left untreated, affects brain development and function depending on the timing of exposure to elevated levels. The specific mechanisms of Phe-induced brain damage are not completely understood, but they correlate to phenylalanine levels and on the stage of brain growth. During fetal life, high levels of phenylalanine such as those seen in maternal PKU can result in microcephaly, neuronal loss and corpus callosum hypoplasia. Elevated phenylalanine levels during the first few years of life can cause acquired microcephaly, severe cognitive impairment and epilepsy, likely due to the impairment of synaptogenesis. During late childhood, elevated phenylalanine can cause alterations in neurological functioning, leading to ADHD, speech delay and mild IQ reduction. In adolescents and adults, executive function and mood are affected, with some of the abnormalities reversed by better control of phenylalanine levels. Altered brain myelination can be present at this stage. In this article, we review the current knowledge about the consequences of high phenylalanine levels in PKU patients and animal models through different stages of brain development and its effect on cognitive, behavioural and neuropsychological function.

Neuropsychological assessment of adults with phenylketonuria using the NIH toolbox

Among researchers and clinicians, there is a call for the development and validation of new measures to better assess and characterize neurocognitive difficulties associated with early-treated phenylketonuria (ETPKU) and other metabolic disorders. The NIH Toolbox represents a relatively new computer-administered assessment tool and provides a sampling of performance across multiple cognitive domains, several of which (e.g., executive function, processing speed) are at risk for disruption in ETPKU. The goal of the present study was to provide an initial evaluation of the value and sensitivity of the NIH Toolbox for use with individuals with ETPKU. To this end, a sample of adults with ETPKU and a demographically-matched comparison group without PKU completed the cognitive and motor batteries of the Toolbox. Results indicate that overall performance (as reflected by the Fluid Cognition Composite) was sensitive to both group differences (ETPKU vs non-PKU) as well as blood Phe levels (a marker of metabolic control). The present findings offer preliminary support for the utility of the NIH Toolbox as a measure of neurocognitive functioning in individuals with ETPKU. Future research including a larger sample size and broader age range is needed to fully validate the Toolbox for clinical and research use with individuals with ETPKU.

Cognitive Functioning in Adults with Phenylketonuria in a Cohort of Spanish Patients

The early introduction of a low phenylalanine (Phe) diet has been demonstrated to be the most successful treatment in subjects with phenylketonuria (PKU), especially for preventing severe cognitive and neurological damages. However, it still concerns that even if treated in the first months of life with supplements and following a diet, they can show slight scores below people without PKU in neuropsychological assignments. We investigated 20 adults with classical PKU aged 19-48 years (mean age 29 years) and 20 heathy controls matched by age, gender, and years of education. Patients and controls were assessed with an extended neuropsychological battery, as well as psychological aspects and quality of life, also the last Phe level result was obtained. Results showed that the most affected cognitive domains are processing speed, executive functioning, memory, and also theory of mind, but very well-preserved verbal fluency, language, and visuospatial functioning. In quality of life, some significant results were seen specially in anxiety of Phe levels, anxiety of Phe levels during pregnancy, guilt if poor adherence to supplements, and if dietary protein restriction not followed. No significant results were obtained for the psychological variables. In conclusion, it has been shown that a combination of a low Phe diet, supplement intake, and keeping Phe levels in a low range seems appropriate to have the most normal and alike cognitive performance to persons without PKU.

The impact of metabolic control on cognition, neurophysiology, and well-being in PKU: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the within-participant literature

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a metabolic disease where Phenylalanine (Phe) rises much above normal levels. Cross-sectional and correlational studies provide valuable information on the importance of maintaining low blood-Phe to achieve good outcomes, but they may be confounded, at least partially, by differences in participant demographics. Moreover, the effect of Phe at older ages is difficult to ascertain because of strong associations between Phe levels across ages. Within-participant studies avoid confounding issues. We have reviewed these studies. We followed PRISMA guidelines to search the literature for studies reporting the impact of Phe changes within participants. Phe was either increased or decreased through diet relaxation/resumption or through pharmacological interventions. Forty-six separate articles reported, singly or in combination, results on cognition (N = 37), well-being (N = 22) and neurophysiological health (N = 14). For all studies, we established, in a binary way, whether a benefit of lower Phe was or was not demonstrated and compared numbers showing benefit versus a null or negative outcome. We then analyzed whether critical parameters (e.g., length of the study/condition for the change, size of Phe change achieved) influenced presence or absence of benefit. For a subset of studies that reported quantitative cognitive outcomes, we carried out a meta-analysis to estimate the size of change in cognitive performance associated with a change in Phe and its significance. There were significantly more studies with benefits than no benefits, both for cognitive and well-being outcomes, and a trend in this direction for neurophysiological outcomes. The meta-analysis showed a highly significant effect size both overall (0.55) and when studies with adults/adolescents were considered separately (0.57). There was some indication that benefits were easier to demonstrate when differences in Phe were larger and achieved across a longer period, but these effects were not always consistent. These results reinforce results from the literature by demonstrating the importance of lower Phe in children as well as in adolescents and adults, even when confounding factors in group composition are eliminated. The field would benefit from further studies where Phe levels are contrasted within-participants to ascertain how much Phe needs to be changed and for how long to see a difference and which measures demonstrate a difference (e.g., which cognitive tasks).

Neuropsychological Disorders in Moderate Hyperphenylalaninemia: Literature Review

Moderate hyperphenylalaninemia (mHPA) is a hydroxylase deficiency corresponding to phenylalanine levels, at newborn screening, below 360 μmol/l. The neurological impact of mHPA is usually considered to be very low, but few studies have investigated the neuropsychological profile of mHPA patients.A systematic review of the neuropsychological aspects of mHPA was therefore conducted.The results showed a preservation of cognitive functions (intelligence, memory, visuoperception…). However, several indicators point to executive difficulties in this population. In regard to the important impact of executive functions in daily life, it is essential to conduct other studies in mHPA patients by proposing an integrative approach.

Evaluation of Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Referred Patients to the PKU Clinic in Yazd, Iran

Objective

The imbalance of phenylalanine (PA) to tyrosine level and decreased dopamine brain level in patients with phenylketonuria (PKU) may have a role in their susceptibility of them to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study aimed to evaluate the frequency of ADHD in referred patients to PKU Clinic in Yazd, Iran.

Materials & Methods

In this cross-sectional analytical study, all patients older than three years with PKU who were referred to the PKU Clinic of Shahid Sadoughi Hospital, Yazd, Iran, in 2018 were evaluated, and ADHD symptoms in them were assessed via parent face-to-face interview. The patients were diagnosed with ADHD if they scored at least of 20 on ADHD diagnostic rating scale via parent interview based on DSM-VI criteria.

Results

Fourteen boys and 21girls with a mean age of 9.55±1.8 years were evaluated. 51.5% of those diagnosed with PKU had ADHD. Accordingly, ADHD was more frequent in girls (77.8% vs. 41% in boys, P=0.03). The mean age of diagnosis of PKU was significantly higher in patients with ADHD (52.54±15.65 months vs. 29.75±9.65 months, P = 0.03). The mean of PA level in the last six months (15.59±5.95 vs. 8.72+5.18, P= 0.005) and mean of the last six PA levels (14.76±4.71 vs. 8.96±3.86, P= 0.03) were significantly higher in ADHD group.

Conclusion

The prevalence of ADHD in phenylketonuria patients in the present study was much more than in other studies. Late diagnosis of PKU and long-term high PA blood and brain level might be associated with increased neonatal screening. Hence, regular follow-up and continuous evaluation of patients with PKU for ADHD symptoms should be performed.

Expert opinion of an Italian working group on the assessment of cognitive, psychological, and neurological outcomes in pediatric, adolescent, and adult patients with phenylketonuria

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited metabolic disease characterized by a defective conversion of phenylalanine (Phe) to tyrosine, potentially leading to Phe accumulation in the brain. Dietary restriction since birth has led to normal cognitive development. However, PKU patients can still develop cognitive or behavioral abnormalities and subtle neurological deficits. Despite the increasing evidence in the field, the assessment of neurocognitive, psychopathological, and neurological follow-up of PKU patients at different ages is still debated. The high interindividual variability in the cognitive outcome of PKU patients makes the specificity of the neurocognitive and behavioral assessment extremely challenging. In the present paper, a multidisciplinary panel of Italian PKU experts discussed different tools available for cognitive, psychopathological, and neurological assessment at different ages based on the existing literature and daily clinical practice. This study aims to provide evidence and a real-life-based framework for a specific clinical assessment of pediatric, adolescent, and adult patients affected by PKU.

Meta-analyses of cognitive functions in early-treated adults with phenylketonuria

Our study estimated size of impairment for different cognitive functions in early-treated adults with PKU (AwPKU) by combining literature results in a meta-analytic way. We analysed a large set of functions (N = 19), each probed by different measures (average = 12). Data were extracted from 26 PKU groups and matched controls, with 757 AwPKU contributing 220 measures. Effect sizes (ESs) were computed using Glass' ∆ where differences in performance between clinical/PKU and control groups are standardized using the mean and standard deviation of the control groups. Significance was assessed using measures nested within independent PKU groups as a random factor. The weighted Glass' ∆ was - 0.44 for all functions taken together, and - 0.60 for IQ, both highly significant. Separate, significant impairments were found for most functions, but with great variability (ESs from -1.02 to -0.18). The most severe impairments were in reasoning, visual-spatial attention speed, sustained attention, visuo-motor control, and flexibility. Effect sizes were larger with speed than accuracy measures, and with visuo-spatial than verbal stimuli. Results show a specific PKU profile that needs consideration when monitoring the disease.

A comprehensive assessment of neurocognitive and psychological functioning in adults with early-treated phenylketonuria

OBJECTIVE

Relative to youth with early-treated phenylketonuria (ETPKU), much less is known regarding the cognitive profile of adults with ETPKU. The present study aimed to address this gap by providing a comprehensive assessment of neuropsychological functioning among adults with ETPKU.

METHOD

A sample of 40 adults with ETPKU (ages 18 - 36) and a demographically matched group of 32 healthy individuals without PKU participated. Participants completed a comprehensive neuropsychological battery including the NIH Toolbox, Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence - Second Edition (WASI-II), Conners' Continuous Performance Test (CPT-3), select subtests from the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale - Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) as well as several self-report measures of cognitive and psychoemotional functioning. Scores from these tests were combined to create cognitive composites reflecting overall task performance in the areas of verbal ability, visuospatial skills, executive functioning, motor skills, and processing speed.

RESULTS

No group differences were observed for full scale IQ or verbal ability. However, individuals with ETPKU demonstrated poorer performance on measures of executive functioning, processing speed, motor skills, and visuospatial skills as compared to the non-PKU group. Within the ETPKU group, recent blood phenylalanine levels (an indicator of metabolic control) were significantly correlated with performance across most cognitive domains and aspects of psychological functioning.

CONCLUSIONS

Present findings suggest that the neuropsychological profile of adult ETPKU is characterized by circumscribed impairments in select cognitive domains. In addition, the results underscore the importance of maintaining metabolic control across the lifespan in individuals with ETPKU.

Management of early treated adolescents and young adults with phenylketonuria: Development of international consensus recommendations using a modified Delphi approach

BACKGROUND

Early treated patients with phenylketonuria (PKU) often become lost to follow-up from adolescence onwards due to the historical focus of PKU care on the pediatric population and lack of programs facilitating the transition to adulthood. As a result, evidence on the management of adolescents and young adults with PKU is limited.

METHODS

Two meetings were held with a multidisciplinary international panel of 25 experts in PKU and comorbidities frequently experienced by patients with PKU. Based on the outcomes of the first meeting, a set of statements were developed. During the second meeting, these statements were voted on for consensus generation (≥70% agreement), using a modified Delphi approach.

RESULTS

A total of 37 consensus recommendations were developed across five areas that were deemed important in the management of adolescents and young adults with PKU: (1) general physical health, (2) mental health and neurocognitive functioning, (3) blood Phe target range, (4) PKU-specific challenges, and (5) transition to adult care. The consensus recommendations reflect the personal opinions and experiences from the participating experts supported with evidence when available. Overall, clinicians managing adolescents and young adults with PKU should be aware of the wide variety of PKU-associated comorbidities, initiating screening at an early age. In addition, management of adolescents/young adults should be a joint effort between the patient, clinical center, and parents/caregivers supporting adolescents with gradually gaining independent control of their disease during the transition to adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS

A multidisciplinary international group of experts used a modified Delphi approach to develop a set of consensus recommendations with the aim of providing guidance and offering tools to clinics to aid with supporting adolescents and young adults with PKU.

Neural correlates of working memory and its association with metabolic parameters in early-treated adults with phenylketonuria

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Working memory (WM) accuracy was significantly reduced in the PKU group.

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Reaction time did not differ between individuals with PKU and controls.

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No group differences were found with regard to neural activation.

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Neural activation was related to concurrent metabolic parameters.

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Results suggest interrelations between neural, cognitive, and metabolic parameters.

Background

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inborn error of metabolism affecting the conversion of phenylalanine (Phe) into tyrosine. Previous research has found cognitive and functional brain alterations in individuals with PKU even if treated early. However, little is known about working memory processing and its association with task performance and metabolic parameters. The aim of the present study was to examine neural correlates of working memory and its association with metabolic parameters in early-treated adults with PKU.

Methods

This cross-sectional study included 20 early-treated adults with PKU (mean age: 31.4 years ± 9.0) and 40 healthy controls with comparable age, sex, and education (mean age: 29.8 years ± 8.2). All participants underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of working memory to evaluate the fronto-parietal working memory network. Fasting blood samples were collected from the individuals with PKU to acquire a concurrent plasma amino acid profile, and retrospective Phe concentrations were obtained to estimate an index of dietary control.

Results

On a cognitive level, early-treated adults with PKU displayed significantly lower accuracy but comparable reaction time in the working memory task compared to the control group. Whole-brain analyses did not reveal differences in working memory-related neural activation between the groups. Exploratory region-of-interest (ROI) analyses indicated reduced neural activation in the left and right middle frontal gyri and the right superior frontal gyrus in the PKU group compared to the control group. However, none of the ROI analyses survived correction for multiple comparisons. Neural activation was related to concurrent Phe, tyrosine, and tryptophan concentrations but not to retrospective Phe concentrations.

Conclusion

In early-treated adults with PKU, cognitive performance and neural activation are slightly altered, a result that is partly related to metabolic parameters. This study offers a rare insight into the complex interplay between metabolic parameters, neural activation, and cognitive performance in a sample of individuals with PKU.

Assessment of parents´ knowledge regarding phenylketonuria and its affecting factors: a cross-sectional study

Introduction

the management of phenylketonuria (PKU) is complex. Practical skills and knowledge of individuals taking care of PKU patients are important for treatment compliance. This study investigated parents´ knowledge about PKU and its affecting factors. The study group consisted of 62 parents of PKU patients.

Methods

data were collected using a ready-made questionnaire on sociodemographic characteristics, PKU and dietary treatment. Total knowledge score (KS) was calculated by giving 5 points for each correct answer.

Results

the study included 34 mothers and 28 fathers; 90.3% of patients were diagnosed during the newborn screening program, 6.5% between ages 1 and 2, and 3.2% at age 6 or after. Among all, 38.7% presented to their follow-up appointments with their mothers, 61.3% with both their parents and none with their father alone. Mothers answered all questions more accurately than fathers. Mothers´ and fathers´ mean KSs were 73.97 ± 12.72 and 53.04 ± 22.25, respectively. The highest KS was obtained among parents whose children were 13 years of age or older.

Conclusion

the presence of another family member, parents´ education level, working status and professional qualifications, previous training on PKU and family´s economic status were the affecting factors. Creating a PKU dietary plan requires knowledge and diligence. Patients and their parents should be periodically informed about the disease and dietary treatment in order to increase their level of knowledge.

Dietetic Management of Adults with Phenylketonuria (PKU) in the UK: A Care Consensus Document

There is an increasing number of adults and elderly patients with phenylketonuria (PKU) who are either early, late treated, or untreated. The principal treatment is a phenylalanine-restricted diet. There is no established UK training for dietitians who work with adults within the specialty of Inherited Metabolic Disorders (IMDs), including PKU. To address this, a group of experienced dietitians specializing in IMDs created a standard operating procedure (SOP) on the dietetic management of adults with PKU to promote equity of care in IMD dietetic services and to support service provision across the UK. The group met virtually over a period of 12 months until they reached 100% consensus on the SOP content. Areas of limited evidence included optimal blood phenylalanine reporting times to patients, protein requirements in older adults, management of weight and obesity, and management of disordered eating and eating disorders. The SOP does not include guidance on maternal PKU management. The SOP can be used as a tool for training dietitians new to the specialty and to raise the standard of education and care for patients with PKU in the UK.

Gene expression profiles in the brain of phenylketonuria mouse model reversed by the low phenylalanine diet therapy

To gain insight into the potential protective mechanisms of low phenylalanine diet (LPD) in phenylketonuria (PKU), gene expression profiles were studied in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of a PKU mouse model (BTBR-Pah^enu2). PKU mice were fed with low Phe diet (LPD-PKU group) and normal diet (PKU group). Wild-type mice were treated with normal diet (WT group) as control. After 12 weeks, we detected gene expression in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of the three groups by RNA-sequencing, and then screened the differentially-expressed genes (DEGs) among the groups by bioinformatics analyses. We found that the transcriptional profiles of both cerebral cortex and hippocampus changed markedly between PKU and WT mice. Furthermore, LPD changed the transcriptional profiles of the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus of PKU mice significantly, especially in the cerebral cortex, with overlaps of genes that changed with the disease and altered by LPD treatment. In the cerebral cortex, hundreds of DEGs enriched in a wide spectrum of biological processes, molecular function, and cellular component, including nervous system development, axon development and guidance, calcium ion binding, modulation of chemical synaptic transmission, and regulation of protein kinase activity. In the hippocampus, the overlapping genes were enriched in positive regulation of long term synaptic, negative regulation of excitatory postsynaptic potential, positive regulation of synapse assembly. Our results showed that genes impaired in PKU and then rescued by LPD might indicate the potential protective capability of LPD in the PKU brain.

Long-term cognitive and psychosocial outcomes in adults with phenylketonuria

Previous studies have suggested that cognitive and psychosocial underfunctioning in early-treated adults with phenylketonuria (PKU) may be explained by suboptimal adherence to dietary treatments, however, these studies often employ small samples, with different outcome measures, definitions and cut-offs. Samples have also tended to comprise participants with a limited range of blood phenylalanine concentrations, and often individuals who may not have been treated early enough to avoid neurological damage. In this study, we explore the impact of lifetime dietary control, as indicated by blood phenylalanine concentrations in childhood, adolescence and adulthood, on long-term cognitive and psychosocial outcomes in a large sample of adults with PKU who were diagnosed by neonatal screening and commenced on dietary treatment within the first month of life. One hundred and fifty-four participants underwent cognitive testing, assessing attention, learning, working memory, language, executive functioning and processing speed. One hundred and forty-nine completed measures of psychosocial functioning, documenting educational, occupational, quality of life, emotional and social outcomes which were compared with a group of healthy controls. Many adults with PKU demonstrated cognitive impairments, most frequently affecting processing speed (23%), executive function (20%) and learning (12%). Cognitive outcomes were related to measures of historic metabolic control, but only processing speed was significantly related to phenylalanine concentration at the time of testing after controlling for historic levels. Adults with PKU did not, however, differ from controls in educational, occupational, quality of life or emotional outcomes, or on a measure of family functioning, and showed only minor differences in relationship style. These findings have implications for patient counselling and decisions regarding the management of PKU in adulthood.

Long-Term Neurological Outcomes of Adult Patients with Phenylketonuria before and after Newborn Screening in Japan

Japanese newborn screening (NBS) for phenylketonuria (PKU) was initiated in 1977. We surveyed the neurological outcomes of Japanese adult patients with PKU to investigate the long-term effects and of and issues with NBS. Eighty-five patients with PKU aged over 19 years who continued to be treated with a phenylalanine-free amino acid formula were investigated by administering questionnaires regarding clinical characteristics, such as mental ability, education status, and therapeutic condition. Of the 85 subjects, 68 patients were detected by NBS (NBS group), while the other 17 were clinically diagnosed before the initiation of NBS (pre-NBS group). Further, 10 of the 68 NBS patients presented intellectual and/or psychiatric disabilities, 5 of whom had a history of treatment discontinuation; in contrast, 12 of the 17 pre-NBS patients presented with neuropsychiatric symptoms. Regarding social outcomes, almost all patients in the NBS group could live an independent life, while over half of the patients in the pre-NBS group were not employed or lived in nursing-care facilities. Neurological outcomes are obviously improved by NBS in Japan. However, some patients, even those detected by NBS, developed neuropsychiatric symptoms due to treatment disruption. Lifelong and strict management is essential to maintain good neurological and social prognoses for patients with PKU.

Diffusion kurtosis imaging detects subclinical white matter abnormalities in Phenylketonuria

OBJECTIVE

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an autosomal recessive disorder whereby deficiencies in phenylalanine metabolism cause progressive neurological dysfunction. Managing PKU is challenging, with disease monitoring focussed on short-term phenylalanine control rather than measures of neuronal damage. Conventional imaging lacks sensitivity, however diffusion kurtosis imaging (DKI), a new MRI method may reveal subclinical white matter structural changes in PKU.

METHODS

This cohort study involved adults with PKU recruited during routine clinical care. MRI, neurocognitive assessment and historical phenylalanine (Phe) levels were collected. A hypothesis-generating case study comparing diet-compliant and non-compliant siblings confirmed that DKI metrics are sensitive to dietary adherence and prompted a candidate metric (K_rad/K_FA ratio). We then tested this metric in a Replication cohort (PKU = 20; controls = 43).

RESULTS

Both siblings scored outside the range of controls for all DKI-based metrics, with severe changes in the periventricular white matter and a gradient of severity toward the cortex. K_rad/K_FA provided clear separation by diagnosis in the Replication cohort (p < 0.001 in periventricular, deep and pericortical compartments). The ratio also correlated negatively with attention (r = -0.51 & -0.50, p < 0.05) and positively with 3-year mean Phe (r = 0.45 & 0.58, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

DKI reveals regionally-specific, progressive abnormalities of brain diffusion characteristics in PKU, even in the absence of conspicuous clinical signs or abnormalities on conventional MRI. A DKI-based marker derived from these scores (K_rad/K_FA ratio) was sensitive to cognitive impairment and PKU control over the medium term and may provide a meaningful subclinical biomarker of end-organ damage.

Phenylalanine Effects on Brain Function in Adult Phenylketonuria

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the relationship between circulating phenylalanine and brain function as well as neuropsychiatric symptoms in adults with phenylketonuria.

METHODS

In this prospective cross-sectional study, early-treated patients with phenylketonuria older than 30 years and age- and sex-matched controls were included. Extensive neurologic evaluation, neuropsychological and behavioral testing, sensory and motor evoked potentials, and MRI were performed. CSF concentrations of neurodegenerative markers were evaluated in addition in a subset of 10 patients.

RESULTS

Nineteen patients with phenylketonuria (median age 41 years) with different phenylalanine levels (median 873 μmol/L) entered the study. They showed higher prevalence of neurologic symptoms, cognitive and behavioral abnormalities, autonomic dysfunction, alterations in neurophysiologic measures, and atrophy in putamen and right thalamus compared to controls. In CSF, patients with phenylketonuria exhibited higher β-amyloid 1-42 (p = 0.003), total tau (p < 0.001), and phosphorylated tau (p = 0.032) levels compared to controls. Plasma phenylalanine levels highly correlated with the number of failed neuropsychological tests (r = 0.64, p = 0.003), neuropsychiatric symptoms (r = 0.73, p < 001), motor evoked potential latency (r = 0.48, p = 0.030), and parietal lobe atrophy.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides strong evidence for a correlation between phenylalanine levels and clinical, neuropsychological, neurophysiologic, biochemical, and imaging alterations in adult patients with phenylketonuria.

Cognitive Outcomes and Relationships with Phenylalanine in Phenylketonuria: A Comparison between Italian and English Adult Samples

We aimed to assess if the same cognitive batteries can be used cross-nationally to monitor the effect of Phenylketonuria (PKU). We assessed whether a battery, previously used with English adults with PKU (AwPKU), was also sensitive to impairments in Italian AwPKU. From our original battery, we selected a number of tasks that comprehensively assessed visual attention, visuo-motor coordination, executive functions (particularly, reasoning, planning, and monitoring), sustained attention, and verbal and visual memory and learning. When verbal stimuli/or responses were involved, stimuli were closely matched between the two languages for psycholinguistic variables. We administered the tasks to 19 Italian AwPKU and 19 Italian matched controls and compared results from with 19 English AwPKU and 19 English matched controls selected from a previously tested cohort. Participant election was blind to cognitive performance and metabolic control, but participants were closely matched for age and education. The Italian AwPKU group had slightly worse metabolic control but showed levels of performance and patterns of impairment similar to the English AwPKU group. The Italian results also showed extensive correlations between adult cognitive measures and metabolic measures across the life span, both in terms of Phenylalanine (Phe) levels and Phe fluctuations, replicating previous results in English. These results suggest that batteries with the same and/or matched tasks can be used to assess cognitive outcomes across countries allowing results to be compared and accrued. Future studies should explore potential differences in metabolic control across countries to understand what variables make metabolic control easier to achieve.

Similarities and differences in key diagnosis, treatment, and management approaches for PAH deficiency in the United States and Europe

Background

Individuals with phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) deficiency lack an enzyme needed to metabolize the amino acid, phenylalanine. This leads to an increase of phenylalanine in the blood, which is associated with changes in cognitive and psychological functioning. Skilled clinical management is essential for preventing complications and providing comprehensive care to patients. In the last decade, the American College of Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) and a group of European experts developed separate guidelines to provide recommendations for the management and care of persons with PAH deficiency. The purpose of this paper was to compare and contrast these guidelines in order to understand the different approaches to PAH deficiency care.

Methods

We examined the procedures used to develop both guidelines, then evaluated key areas in PAH deficiency care which included screening, diagnostic approaches, dietary treatment (initiation and duration), ongoing phenylalanine level/ nutritional monitoring, neurocognitive screening, adherence issues in treatment, and special populations (women and maternal PKU, late or untreated PAH deficiency, and transitioning to adult services). We conducted a scoping review of four key topics in PAH deficiency care to explore recent research studies performed since the publication of the guidelines.

Results

The ACMG and European expert group identified limited numbers of high quality studies to use as evidence for their recommendations. The ACMG and European guidelines had many similarities in their respective approaches PAH deficiency care and recommendations for the diagnosis, treatment, and management for persons with PAH deficiency. There were also a number of differences between the guidelines regarding the upper range for phenylalanine levels in adolescents and adults, the types of instruments used and frequency of neuropsychiatric examinations, and monitoring of bone health. Treatment adherence can be associated with a number of challenges, such as aversions to medical foods and formulas, as well as factors related to educational, social, and psychosocial issues. From the scoping review, there were many new studies addressing issues in treatment and management including new research on sapropterin adherence and increased dietary protein tolerance and pegvaliase on the reduction in phenylalanine levels and hypersensitivity reactions.

Conclusions

In the last decade, ACMG and European experts developed comprehensive guidelines for the clinical management of phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency. The guidelines offered background and recommendations for clinical care of patients with PAH deficiency throughout the lifespan. New research evidence is available and updates to guidelines can keep pace with new developments. Evidence-based guidelines for diagnosis and treatment are important for providing expert care to patients.

Bone Status in Patients with Phenylketonuria: A Systematic Review

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is the most common inborn error of amino acid metabolism. Although dietary and, in some cases, pharmacological treatment has been successful in preventing intellectual disability in PKU patients who are treated early, suboptimal outcomes have been reported, including bone mineral disease. In this systematic review, we summarize the available evidence on bone health in PKU patients, including data on bone mineral density (BMD) and bone turnover marker data. Data from cohort and cross-sectional studies of children and adults (up to 40 years of age) were obtained by searching the MEDLINE and SCOPUS databases following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. For each selected study, quality assessment was performed applying the Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies of Interventions (ROBINS I) tool. We found that mean BMD was lower in PKU patients than in reference groups, but was within the normal range in most patients when expressed as Z-score values. Furthermore, data revealed a trend towards an imbalance between bone formation and bone resorption, favoring bone removal. Data on serum levels of minerals and hormones involved in bone metabolism were very heterogeneous, and the analyses were inconclusive. Clinical trials that include the analysis of fracture rates, especially in older patients, are needed to gather more evidence on the clinical implications of lower BMD in PKU patients.

Phenylketonuria, co-morbidity, and ageing: A review

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a metabolic condition which, left untreated, results in severe and irreversible brain damage. Newborn screening and the development of the low phenylalanine (Phe) diet have transformed the outcomes for people with PKU. Those who have benefited from early treatment are now approaching their fifth and sixth decade. It is therefore timely to consider multi-morbidity in PKU and the effects of ageing, in parallel with the wider benefits of emerging treatment options in addition to dietary relaxation. We have conducted the first literature review of co-morbidity and ageing in the context of PKU. Avenues explored have emerged from limited study of multi-morbidity to date and the knowledge and critical enquiry of the authors. Findings suggest PKU to have a wider impact than brain development, and result in several intriguing questions that require investigation to attain the best outcomes for people with PKU in adulthood moving through to older age. We recognise the difficulty in studying longitudinal outcomes in rare diseases and emphasise the necessity to develop PKU registries and cohorts that facilitate well-designed studies to answer some of the questions raised in this review. Whilst awaiting new information in these areas we propose that clinicians engage with patients to make personalised and well-informed decisions around Phe control and assessment for co-morbidity.

Impact of phenylalanine on cognitive, cerebral, and neurometabolic parameters in adult patients with phenylketonuria (the PICO study): a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover, noninferiority trial

Background

The population of adult patients with early-treated phenylketonuria (PKU) following newborn screening is growing substantially. The ideal target range of blood phenylalanine (Phe) levels in adults outside pregnancy is a matter of debate. Therefore, prospective intervention studies are needed to evaluate the effects of an elevated Phe concentration on cognition and structural, functional, and neurometabolic parameters of the brain.

Methods

The PICO (Phenylalanine and Its Impact on Cognition) Study evaluates the effect of a 4-week Phe load on cognition and cerebral parameters in adults with early-treated PKU in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover, noninferiority trial.

Participants

Thirty adult patients with early-treated PKU and 30 healthy controls comparable to patients with regard to age, sex, and educational level will be recruited from the University Hospitals Bern and Zurich, Switzerland. Patients are eligible for the study if they are 18 years of age or older and had PKU diagnosed after a positive newborn screening and were treated with a Phe-restricted diet starting within the first 30 days of life.

Intervention: The cross-over intervention consists of 4-week oral Phe or placebo administration in patients with PKU. The study design mimics a Phe-restricted and a Phe-unrestricted diet using a double-blinded, placebo-controlled approach.

Objectives

The primary objective of the PICO Study is to prospectively assess whether a temporarily elevated Phe level influences cognitive performance (working memory assessed with a n-back task) in adults with early-treated PKU. As a secondary objective, the PICO Study will elucidate the cerebral (fMRI, neural activation during a n-back task; rsfMRI, functional connectivity at rest; DTI, white matter integrity; and ASL, cerebral blood flow) and neurometabolic mechanisms (cerebral Phe level) that accompany changes in Phe concentration. Cognition, and structural and functional parameters of the brain of adult patients with early-treated PKU will be cross-sectionally compared to healthy controls. All assessments will take place at the University Hospital Bern, Switzerland.

Randomization

Central randomization will be used to assign participants to the different treatment arms with age, sex, and center serving as the stratification factors. Randomization lists will be generated by an independent statistician.

Blinding: All trial personnel other than the statistician generating the randomization list and the personnel at the facility preparing the interventional product are blinded to the assigned treatment.

Discussion

Using a combination of neuropsychological and neuroimaging data, the PICO Study will considerably contribute to improve the currently insufficient level of evidence on how adult patients with early-treated PKU should be managed.

Trial registration

The study is registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03788343) on the 27th of December 2018, at kofam.ch (SNCTP000003117) on the 17th of December 2018, and on the International Clinical Trials Registry Platform of the WHO.

Generic preference-based health-related quality of life in children with neurodevelopmental disorders: a scoping review

AIM

To describe how generic preference-based health-related quality of life (HRQoL) instruments have been used in research involving children with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD).

METHOD

A systematic search of nine databases identified studies that used generic preference-based HRQoL instruments in children with NDD. Data extracted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Review guidelines included type of NDD, instrument used, respondent type, justification, and critical appraisal for these selections.

RESULTS

Thirty-six studies were identified: four cost-utility analyses; 15 HRQoL assessments; five economic burden studies; three intervention studies; and nine 'other'. The Health Utilities Index (Mark 2 and Mark 3) and EuroQoL 5D (EQ-5D; three-level EQ-5D, five-level EQ-5D, and the youth version of the EQ-5D) instruments were most frequently used (44% and 31% respectively). The relatively low use of these instruments overall may be due to a lack of psychometric evidence, inconsistency in justification for and lack of clarity on appropriate respondent type and age, and geographical challenges in applying preference weights.

INTERPRETATION

This study highlights the dearth of studies using generic preference-based HRQoL instruments in children with NDD. The use of cost-utility analysis in this field is limited and validation of these instruments for children with NDD is needed. The quality of data should be considered before guiding policy and care decisions.

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS

Limited use of generic preference-based health-related quality of life (HRQoL) instruments in studies on children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Only 11% of studies were cost-utility analyses. Inconsistencies in justification for choosing generic preference-based HRQoL instruments and respondent types.

Novel imaging technologies for genetic diagnoses in the inborn errors of metabolism

Many inborn errors of metabolism and genetic disorders affect the brain. The brain biochemistry may differ from that in the periphery and is not accessible by simple blood and urine sampling. Therefore, neuroimaging has proven to be a valuable tool to not only evaluate the brain structure, but also biochemistry, blood flow and function. Neuroimaging in patients with inborn errors of metabolism can include additional sequences in addition to T1 and T2-weighted imaging because in early stages, there may be no significant findings on the routine sequnces due to the lack of sensitivity or the evolution of abnormalities lags behind the ability of the imaging to detect it. In addition, findings on T1 and T2-weighted imaging of several inborn errors of metabolism may be non-specific and be seen in other non-genetic conditions. Therefore, additional neuroimaging modalities that have been employed including diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), magnetic resonance spectroscopy, functional MRI (fMRI), functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), or positron emission tomography (PET) imaging may further inform underlying changes in myelination, biochemistry, and functional connectivity. The use of Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in certain disorders may add a level of specificity depending upon the metabolite levels that are abnormal, as well as provide information about the process of brain injury (i.e., white matter, gray matter, energy deficiency, toxic buildup or depletion of key metabolites). It is even more challenging to understand how genetic or metabolic disorders contribute to short and/or long term changes in cognition which represent the downstream effects of IEMs. In order to image “cognition” or the downstream effects of a metabolic disorder on domains of brain function, more advanced techniques are required to analyze underlying fiber tracts or alternatively, methods such as fMRI enable generation of brain activation maps after both task based and resting state conditions. DTI can be used to look at changes in white matter tracks. Each imaging modality can explore an important aspect of the anatomy, physiology or biochemisty of the central nervous system. Their properties, pros and cons are discussed in this article. These imaging modalities will be discussed in the context of several inborn errors of metabolism including Galactosemia, Phenylketonruia, Maple syrup urine disease, Methylmalonic acidemia, Niemann-Pick Disease, type C1, Krabbe Disease, Ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency, Sjogren Larsson syndrome, Pelizeaus-Merzbacher disease, Pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency, Nonketotic Hyperglycinemia and Fabry disease. Space constraints do not allow mention of all the disorders in which one of these modalities has been investigated, or where it would add value to diagnosis or disease progression.

Of mice and men: Plasma phenylalanine reduction in PKU corrects neurotransmitter pathways in the brain

In phenylketonuria (PKU), mutations of the phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) gene decrease the ability of PAH to convert phenylalanine (Phe) to tyrosine (Tyr), resulting in Phe accumulation in the blood and brain and disruption of neurotransmitter (NT) biosynthesis and metabolism. The following translational study explored the relationship between pegvaliase-mediated Phe correction in plasma and the NT biosynthesis and metabolism pathway in mice and humans with PKU. Lower plasma Phe levels were associated with normalization of the NT biosynthesis pathway which correlated with an improvement in inattention symptoms in subjects with PKU.

Adult cognitive outcomes in phenylketonuria: explaining causes of variability beyond average Phe levels

Objective

The objective was to deepen the understanding of the causes of individual variability in phenylketonuria (PKU) by investigating which metabolic variables are most important for predicting cognitive outcomes (Phe average vs Phe variation) and by assessing the risk of cognitive impairment associated with adopting a more relaxed approach to the diet than is currently recommended.

Method

We analysed associations between metabolic and cognitive measures in a mixed sample of English and Italian early-treated adults with PKU (N = 56). Metabolic measures were collected through childhood, adolescence and adulthood; cognitive measures were collected in adulthood. Metabolic measures included average Phe levels (average of median values for each year in a given period) and average Phe variations (average yearly standard deviations). Cognition was measured with IQ and a battery of cognitive tasks.

Results

Phe variation was as important, if not more important, than Phe average in predicting adult outcomes and contributed independently. Phe variation was particularly detrimental in childhood. Together, childhood Phe variation and adult Phe average predicted around 40% of the variation in cognitive scores. Poor cognitive scores (> 1 SD from controls) occurred almost exclusively in individuals with poor metabolic control and the risk of poor scores was about 30% higher in individuals with Phe values exceeding recommended thresholds.

Conclusions

Our results provide support for current European guidelines (average Phe value = < 360 μmol/l in childhood; = < 600 μmo/l from 12 years onwards), but they suggest an additional recommendation to maintain stable levels (possibly Phe SD = < 180 μmol/l throughout life).

Public significance statements

We investigated the relationship between how well people with phenylketonuria control blood Phe throughout their life and their ability to carry out cognitive tasks in adulthood. We found that avoiding blood Phe peaks was as important if not more important that maintaining average low Phe levels. This was particularly essential in childhood. We also found that blood Phe levels above recommended European guidelines was associated with around 30% increase in the risk of poor cognitive outcomes.

Examining the blood amino acid status in pretherapeutic patients with hyperphenylalaninemia

Background

Hyperphenylalaninemia is the most common genetic metabolic disease. Early treatment prevents brain injury effectively. The present study aimed to detect the exact amino acid status of patients with hyperphenylalaninemia before treatment.

Methods

Data of 116 newborn patients from our Newborn Screening Center and 161 older patients from our clinic before treatment were collected. The content of 17 amino acids in their blood was determined by tandem mass spectrometry and compared with normal controls. Relationship between phenylalanine and other amino acids in patients was analyzed using the smoothing curve fitting and threshold effect analysis.

Results

Most amino acids in the blood of patients were within the normal range; however, they were different significantly from those of the normal children. Newborn patients showed higher phenylalanine (346.30 vs 45.90 µmol/L), valine (121.50 vs 110.30 µmol/L), citrulline, ornithine and lower tyrosine (52.97 vs 66.12 µmol/L), threonine (68.68 vs 78.21 µmol/L), glutamine levels than observed in normal newborns. Older patients showed significantly higher phenylalanine (844.00 vs 51.82 µmol/L), valine (117.60 vs 110.90 µmol/L), histidine, serine and lower tyrosine (55.97 vs 67.31 µmol/L), threonine (35.94 vs 51.89 µmol/L), alanine, asparagine, glutamic acid, methionine, arginine, glycine, ornithine, glutamine content than found in matched normal children. Tyrosine, valine, ornithine, and threonine in newborn patients and tyrosine, glycine, glutamine, and threonine in older patients had a nonlinear correlation with phenylalanine levels with obvious threshold effect and clear inflection points.

Conclusion

Significant difference was observed in the amino acid status between pretherapeutic hyperphenylalaninemia patients and normal children. Some amino acids showed notable threshold effect with phenylalanine level in a nonlinear pattern.

Predictability and inconsistencies of cognitive outcome in patients with phenylketonuria and personalised therapy: the challenge for the future guidelines

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a prototypical model of a neurodevelopmental metabolic disease that follows a cascade of pathological events affecting brain maturation and functioning. Neonatal screening and early treatment have eradicated the classical PKU phenotype in patients with early and continuously treated phenylketonuria (ECTPKU). However, effort is required to optimise the treatment of the disease to minimise the risk of lifelong neurological, cognitive and behavioural impairment, and to solve issues on the variability in clinical outcome that are rather not understood and has yet hampered a more personalised approach to its treatment. The aim of the present review is to focus on the inconsistencies in the clinical outcome of adult patients with ECTPKU unexplained by the biochemical markers adopted for the monitoring of the disease to date. The interindividual variability of clinical outcome in late as well as in early treated patients under similar biochemical control suggests the existence of disease-independent determinants influencing the individual vulnerability to the neurotoxic effect of phenylalanine. This is further supported by the low predictive power of blood phenylalanine on the clinical outcome from the second decade of life onwards. In conclusion, individual vulnerability to the metabolic alterations of PKU contributes to the prognosis of PKU, also in patients with ECTPKU. The biological factors constitutive of this vulnerability are unknown (but have not been the object of many studies so far) and should be the target of further research as prerequisite for a personalised treatment aimed at avoiding burden and costs of overtreatment and clinical consequences and risks of undertreatment in patients with PKU.

Impact of growing up with a sibling with a neurodevelopmental disorder on the quality of life of an unaffected sibling: a scoping review

PURPOSE

Growing up with a sibling with a neurodevelopmental disorder can have positive and negative effects on personal, social and emotional well-being; however, little is known about the impacts on unaffected siblings' quality of life. The purpose of this review was to synthesize evidence from studies evaluating the quality of life of unaffected siblings of children with neurodevelopmental disorders.

METHOD

A systematic search was conducted on four databases to identify studies reporting the quality of life of unaffected siblings of children with neurodevelopmental disorders.

RESULTS

Seven studies met the inclusion criteria. Four studies reported impaired quality of life in unaffected siblings of children with neurodevelopmental disorder while three studies reported not the impaired quality of life. Parents reported the lower quality of life for children with or without neurodevelopmental disorders compared to children's self-reports.

CONCLUSIONS

This review provides the mixed evidence on the quality of life in unaffected siblings of children with neurodevelopmental disorders, and identifies the substantial gap in the research regarding the impacts of children's neurodevelopmental disorders on the quality of life of their unaffected siblings. Assessment of unaffected siblings' quality of life is necessary to identify those who may be at risk and to provide support programs for physical and emotional well-being. Future research examining the quality of life of unaffected siblings across a variety of NDD is needed.Implications for rehabilitationGrowing up with a sibling with a neurodevelopmental disorder influences the personal and social development of the unaffected child.Measuring quality of life can have a meaningful impact on the lives of unaffected siblings of children with neurodevelopmental disorders and their families. Evidence generated from such studies can be used by healthcare providers such as physicians, nurses, psychologists, and social workers to recommend appropriate supports to the family and siblings.

Psychiatric and Cognitive Aspects of Phenylketonuria: The Limitations of Diet and Promise of New Treatments

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a recessive disorder of phenylalanine metabolism due to mutations in the gene for phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH). Reduced PAH activity results in significant hyperphenylalaninemia, which leads to alterations in cerebral myelin and protein synthesis, as well as reduced levels of serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline in the brain. When untreated, brain development is grossly disrupted and significant intellectual impairment and behavioral disturbance occur. The advent of neonatal heel prick screening has allowed for diagnosis at birth, and the institution of a phenylalanine restricted diet. Dietary treatment, particularly when maintained across neurodevelopment and well into adulthood, has resulted in markedly improved outcomes at a cognitive and psychiatric level for individuals with PKU. However, few individuals can maintain full dietary control lifelong, and even with good control, an elevated risk remains of-in particular-mood, anxiety, and attentional disorders across the lifespan. Increasingly, dietary recommendations focus on maintaining continuous dietary treatment lifelong to optimize psychiatric and cognitive outcomes, although the effect of long-term protein restricted diets on brain function remains unknown. While psychiatric illness is very common in adult PKU populations, very little data exist to guide clinicians on optimal treatment. The advent of new treatments that do not require restrictive dietary management, such as the enzyme therapy Pegvaliase, holds the promise of allowing patients a relatively normal diet alongside optimized mental health and cognitive functioning.