The role of HGF/c-MET signaling pathway in lymphoma

Advances in Targeted and Chemotherapeutic Strategies for Colorectal Cancer: Current Insights and Future Directions

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related mortality worldwide, necessitating the continuous evolution of therapeutic approaches. Despite advancements in early detection and localized treatments, metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) poses significant challenges due to low survival rates and resistance to conventional therapies. This review highlights the current landscape of CRC treatment, focusing on chemotherapy and targeted therapies. Chemotherapeutic agents, including 5-fluorouracil, irinotecan, and oxaliplatin, have significantly improved survival but face limitations such as systemic toxicity and resistance. Targeted therapies, leveraging mechanisms like VEGF, EGFR, and Hedgehog pathway inhibition, offer promising alternatives, minimizing damage to healthy tissues while enhancing therapeutic precision. Furthermore, future directions in CRC treatment include exploring innovative targets such as Wnt/β-catenin, Notch, and TGF-β pathways, alongside IGF/IGF1R inhibition. These emerging strategies aim to address drug resistance and improve patient outcomes. This review emphasizes the importance of integrating molecular insights into drug development, advocating for a more personalized approach to combat CRC's complexity and heterogeneity.

Identification of a 7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin derivatives as selective type II c-Met/Axl inhibitors with potent antitumor efficacy

In this study, we reported the discovery of a novel type II c-Met/Axl inhibitor, characterized by using 4-amino-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidine as a hinge region binder. Through a systematic exploration of the structure-activity relationship, based on the clinically reported c-Met inhibitor BMS-777607, we identified the optimized compound 22a. 22a exhibited remarkable potency against c-Met and Axl kinases, with IC50 values of 1 nM and 10 nM, respectively, and demonstrated over 100-fold selectivity to other members of the TAM subfamily. Furthermore, compared to cabozantinib, compound 22a displayed superior anti-tumor proliferation activity across a range of solid tumors. 22a demonstrated excellent drug-like properties, achieving a bioavailability of 174.2 % in rats. In established MKN-45 and HCT116 xenograft tumor models, compound 22a achieved tumor growth inhibition (TGI) rates of 98.2 % and 87.2 %, respectively, at a dosage of 1 mg/kg. Taken together, compound 22a is a selective dual c-Met/Axl inhibitor with significant potential as a clinical candidate.

The mutational landscape and its longitudinal dynamics in relapsed and refractory classic Hodgkin lymphoma

In classic Hodgkin-lymphoma (cHL), only a few cases recur, and only a limited fraction of patients is primary-refractory to standard-polychemotherapy. Underlying genomic features of unfavorable clinical courses remain sparsely characterized. Here, we investigated the genomic characteristics of primary-refractory/relapsed cHL in contrast with responders. Therefore, ultra-deep next-generation panel-sequencing was performed on a total of 59 FFPE-samples (20 responders, 26 relapsed (rHL: 11 initial-diagnosis, 15 relapse) and 13 primary-refractory (prHL: 8 initial-diagnosis, 5 progression) from 44 cHL-patients applying a hybrid-capture approach. We compared samples associated with distinct disease courses concerning their oncogenic drivers, mutational signatures, and perturbed pathways. Compared to responders, mutations in genes such as PMS2, PDGFRB, KAT6A, EPHB1, and HGF were detected more frequently in prHL/rHL. Additionally, we observed that in rHL or prHL, BARD1-mutations occur, whereas ETV1, NF1, and MET-mutations were eliminated through clonal selection. A significant enrichment of non-synonymous variants was detected in prHL compared to responders and a significant selection process in favor of NOTCH-pathway mutations driving rHL or prHL was observed. However, our analysis revealed a negative selection process for non-synonymous variants affecting the hippo-pathway. This study delineates distinct mutational signatures between responders and rHL/prHL, whilst illustrating longitudinal dynamics in mutational profiles using paired samples. Further, several exploitable therapeutic vulnerabilities for rHL and prHL were identified.

The MET Oncogene Network of Interacting Cell Surface Proteins

The MET oncogene, encoding the hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) receptor, plays a key role in tumorigenesis, invasion, and resistance to therapy, yet its full biological functions and activation mechanisms remain incompletely understood. A feature of MET is its extensive interaction network, encompassing the following: (i) receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs); (ii) co-receptors (e.g., CDCP1, Neuropilin1); (iii) adhesion molecules (e.g., integrins, tetraspanins); (iv) proteases (e.g., ADAM10); and (v) other receptors (e.g., CD44, plexins, GPCRs, and NMDAR). These interactions dynamically modulate MET's activation, signaling, intracellular trafficking, and degradation, enhancing its functional versatility and oncogenic potential. This review offers current knowledge on MET's partnerships, focusing on their functional impact on signaling output, therapeutic resistance, and cellular behavior. Finally, we evaluate emerging combination therapies targeting MET and its interactors, highlighting their potential to overcome resistance and improve clinical outcomes. By exploring the complex interplay within the MET network of interacting cell surface proteins, this review provides insights into advancing anti-cancer strategies and understanding the broader implications of RTK crosstalk in oncology.

Therapeutic advances of targeting receptor tyrosine kinases in cancer

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), a category of transmembrane receptors, have gained significant clinical attention in oncology due to their central role in cancer pathogenesis. Genetic alterations, including mutations, amplifications, and overexpression of certain RTKs, are critical in creating environments conducive to tumor development. Following their discovery, extensive research has revealed how RTK dysregulation contributes to oncogenesis, with many cancer subtypes showing dependency on aberrant RTK signaling for their proliferation, survival and progression. These findings paved the way for targeted therapies that aim to inhibit crucial biological pathways in cancer. As a result, RTKs have emerged as primary targets in anticancer therapeutic development. Over the past two decades, this has led to the synthesis and clinical validation of numerous small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), now effectively utilized in treating various cancer types. In this manuscript we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the RTKs in the context of cancer. We explored the various alterations and overexpression of specific receptors across different malignancies, with special attention dedicated to the examination of current RTK inhibitors, highlighting their role as potential targeted therapies. By integrating the latest research findings and clinical evidence, we seek to elucidate the pivotal role of RTKs in cancer biology and the therapeutic efficacy of RTK inhibition with promising treatment outcomes.

Antibody-drug conjugates in cancer therapy: mechanisms and clinical studies

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) consist of monoclonal antibodies that target tumor cells and cytotoxic drugs linked through linkers. By leveraging antibodies' targeting properties, ADCs deliver cytotoxic drugs into tumor cells via endocytosis after identifying the tumor antigen. This precise method aims to kill tumor cells selectively while minimizing harm to normal cells, offering safe and effective therapeutic benefits. Recent years have seen significant progress in antitumor treatment with ADC development, providing patients with new and potent treatment options. With over 300 ADCs explored for various tumor indications and some already approved for clinical use, challenges such as resistance due to factors like antigen expression, ADC processing, and payload have emerged. This review aims to outline the history of ADC development, their structure, mechanism of action, recent composition advancements, target selection, completed and ongoing clinical trials, resistance mechanisms, and intervention strategies. Additionally, it will delve into the potential of ADCs with novel markers, linkers, payloads, and innovative action mechanisms to enhance cancer treatment options. The evolution of ADCs has also led to the emergence of combination therapy as a new therapeutic approach to improve drug efficacy.

Serum cytokines and creatinine/cystatin C ratio as prognostic biomarkers in advanced cancer patients treated with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy

OBJECTIVE

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), specifically targeting the programmed cell death protein-1 or its ligand (PD-1/PD-L1), have been extensively used in the treatment of a spectrum of malignancies, although the predictive biomarkers remain to be elucidated. This study aims to investigate the association between baseline circulating levels of cytokines and the creatinine/cystatin C ratio (CCR) with the treatment outcomes of ICIs in patients with advanced cancer.

METHODS

The pre-treatment circulating levels of 10 cytokines (PD-L1, CTLA4, CXCL10, LAG3, HGF, CCL2, MIG, GRANB, IL-18, and IL-6) were measured via automated capillary-based immunoassay platform in the serum of 65 advanced cancer patients treated with anti-PD-1/PD-L1-based systemic therapy and 10 healthy volunteers. The levels of cytokines and CCR were quantified and categorized into high and low groups based on the median value. The associations of serum cytokines and CCR with response to treatment, survival, and immune-related adverse events were assessed.

RESULTS

Elevated circulating levels of 6 cytokines (PD-L1, CXCL10, HGF, CCL2, MIG, and IL-6) were observed in cancer patients compared with that in healthy volunteers. The correlation coefficients between cytokines, CCR and nutritional risk index were also calculated. In the cancer cohort (N = 65), low circulating HGF (P = 0.023, P = 0.029), low IL-6 (P = 0.002, P < 0.001), and high CCR (P = 0.031, P = 0.008) were associated with significantly improved progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS). Multi-variable COX analyses adjusted for clinicopathological factors revealed that low HGF, low IL-6, and high CCR were independent favorable prognostic factors for PFS (P = 0.028, P = 0.010, and P = 0.015, respectively) and OS (P = 0.043, P = 0.003, and P = 0.026, respectively). Grade 2 irAEs occurred more frequently in patients with low levels of circulating CCL2 and LAG3.

CONCLUSIONS

Pre-treatment circulating levels of serum IL-6, HGF, and CCR may serve as independent predictive and prognostic biomarkers in advanced cancer patients treated with ICIs-based systemic therapy. These findings might help to identify potential patients who would benefit from these therapies.

Tumor biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis and targeted therapy

Tumor biomarkers, the substances which are produced by tumors or the body's responses to tumors during tumorigenesis and progression, have been demonstrated to possess critical and encouraging value in screening and early diagnosis, prognosis prediction, recurrence detection, and therapeutic efficacy monitoring of cancers. Over the past decades, continuous progress has been made in exploring and discovering novel, sensitive, specific, and accurate tumor biomarkers, which has significantly promoted personalized medicine and improved the outcomes of cancer patients, especially advances in molecular biology technologies developed for the detection of tumor biomarkers. Herein, we summarize the discovery and development of tumor biomarkers, including the history of tumor biomarkers, the conventional and innovative technologies used for biomarker discovery and detection, the classification of tumor biomarkers based on tissue origins, and the application of tumor biomarkers in clinical cancer management. In particular, we highlight the recent advancements in biomarker-based anticancer-targeted therapies which are emerging as breakthroughs and promising cancer therapeutic strategies. We also discuss limitations and challenges that need to be addressed and provide insights and perspectives to turn challenges into opportunities in this field. Collectively, the discovery and application of multiple tumor biomarkers emphasized in this review may provide guidance on improved precision medicine, broaden horizons in future research directions, and expedite the clinical classification of cancer patients according to their molecular biomarkers rather than organs of origin.

DeepAEG: a model for predicting cancer drug response based on data enhancement and edge-collaborative update strategies

MOTIVATION

The prediction of cancer drug response is a challenging subject in modern personalized cancer therapy due to the uncertainty of drug efficacy and the heterogeneity of patients. It has been shown that the characteristics of the drug itself and the genomic characteristics of the patient can greatly influence the results of cancer drug response. Therefore, accurate, efficient, and comprehensive methods for drug feature extraction and genomics integration are crucial to improve the prediction accuracy.

RESULTS

Accurate prediction of cancer drug response is vital for guiding the design of anticancer drugs. In this study, we propose an end-to-end deep learning model named DeepAEG which is based on a complete-graph update mode to predict IC50. Specifically, we integrate an edge update mechanism on the basis of a hybrid graph convolutional network to comprehensively learn the potential high-dimensional representation of topological structures in drugs, including atomic characteristics and chemical bond information. Additionally, we present a novel approach for enhancing simplified molecular input line entry specification data by employing sequence recombination to eliminate the defect of single sequence representation of drug molecules. Our extensive experiments show that DeepAEG outperforms other existing methods across multiple evaluation parameters in multiple test sets. Furthermore, we identify several potential anticancer agents, including bortezomib, which has proven to be an effective clinical treatment option. Our results highlight the potential value of DeepAEG in guiding the design of specific cancer treatment regimens.

A novel c-Met/TRK inhibitor 1D228 efficiently inhibits tumor growth by targeting angiogenesis and tumor cell proliferation

Multiple tumors are synergistically promoted by c-Met and TRK, and blocking their cross-signalling pathway may give better effects. In this study, we developed a tyrosine kinase inhibitor 1D228, which exhibited excellent anti-tumor activity by targeting c-Met and TRK. Models in vitro, 1D228 showed a significant better inhibition on cancer cell proliferation and migration than the positive drug Tepotinib. Models in vivo, 1D228 showed robust anti-tumor effect on gastric and liver tumor growth with 94.8% and 93.4% of the TGI, respectively, comparing 67.61% and 63.9% of Tepotinib. Importantly, compared with the combination of Larotrectinib and Tepotinib, 1D228 monotherapy in MKN45 xenograft tumor models showed stronger antitumor activity and lower toxicity. Mechanistic studies showed that 1D228 can largely inhibit the phosphorylation of TRKB and c-Met. Interestingly, both kinases, TRKs and c-Met, have been found to be co-expressed at high levels in patients with gastric cancer through IHC. Furthermore, bioinformatics analysis has revealed that both genes are abnormally co-expressed in multiple types of cancer. Cell cycle analysis found that 1D228 induced G0/G1 arrest by inhibiting cyclin D1. Additionally, vascular endothelial cells also showed a pronounced response to 1D228 due to its expression of TRKB and c-Met. 1D228 suppressed the migration and tube formation of endothelial cells, which are the key functions of tumor angiogenesis. Taken together, compound 1D228 may be a promising candidate for the next generation of c-Met and TRK inhibitors for cancer treatment, and offers a novel potential treatment strategy for cancer patients with abnormal expressions of c-Met or NTRK, or simultaneous of them.

Nf1 in heart development: a potential causative gene for congenital heart disease: a narrative review

Congenital heart disease is the most frequent congenital disorder, affecting a significant number of live births. Gaining insights into its genetic etiology could lead to a deeper understanding of this condition. Although the Nf1 gene has been identified as a potential causative gene, its role in congenital heart disease has not been thoroughly clarified. We searched and summarized evidence from cohort-based and experimental studies on the issue of Nf1 and heart development in congenital heart diseases from various databases. Available evidence demonstrates a correlation between Nf1 and congenital heart diseases, mainly pulmonary valvar stenosis. The mechanism underlying this correlation may involve dysregulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). The Nf1 gene affects the EMT process via multiple pathways, including directly regulating the expression of EMT-related transcription factors and indirectly regulating the EMT process by regulating the MAPK pathway. This narrative review provides a comprehensive account of the Nf1 involvement in heart development and congenital cardiovascular diseases in terms of epidemiology and potential mechanisms. RAS signaling may contribute to congenital heart disease independently or in cooperation with other signaling pathways. Efficient management of both NF1 and cardiovascular disease patients would benefit from further research into these issues.

Can immunotherapy reinforce chemotherapy efficacy? a new perspective on colorectal cancer treatment

As one of the main threats to human life (the fourth most dangerous and prevalent cancer), colorectal cancer affects many people yearly, decreases patients' quality of life, and causes irreparable financial and social damages. In addition, this type of cancer can metastasize and involve the liver in advanced stages. However, current treatments can't completely eradicate this disease. Chemotherapy and subsequent surgery can be mentioned among the current main treatments for this disease. Chemotherapy has many side effects, and regarding the treatment of this type of tumor, chemotherapy can lead to liver damage, such as steatohepatitis, steatosis, and sinus damage. These damages can eventually lead to liver failure and loss of its functions. Therefore, it seems that other treatments can be used in addition to chemotherapy to increase its efficiency and reduce its side effects. Biological therapies and immunotherapy are one of the leading suggestions for combined treatment. Antibodies (immune checkpoint blockers) and cell therapy (DC and CAR-T cells) are among the immune system-based treatments used to treat tumors. Immunotherapy targets various aspects of the tumor that may lead to 1) the recruitment of immune cells, 2) increasing the immunogenicity of tumor cells, and 3) leading to the elimination of inhibitory mechanisms established by the tumor. Therefore, immunotherapy can be used as a complementary treatment along with chemotherapy. This review will discuss different chemotherapy and immunotherapy methods for colorectal cancer. Then we will talk about the studies that have dealt with combined treatment.

Analysis of genomic alterations in primary central nervous system lymphoma

Primary central nervous system lymphoma (PCNSL) is a rare and special type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma with a significantly worse median overall prognosis than that of non-Hodgkin lymphoma outside the brain. Clarifying the genomic characteristics and alterations in PCNSL could provide clues regarding its distinctive pathophysiology and new treatment options. However, current knowledge about the genomics of PCNSL is limited. In this study, next-generation sequencing (NGS) was performed to investigate the genomic profile of PCNSL. Samples from 12 patients diagnosed with PCNSL at our institution were analyzed for gene mutations using NGS. This study showed that missense mutations were the most common mutation type. C > A/G > T accounted for most of the single-base mutations, which reflected the preference of the tumor sample mutation type and may serve as an important prognostic factor. The most significantly mutated gene was myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MYD88) (0.55), followed by CD79B, LRP1B, and PRDM1 (0.36). None of the cases showed a high tumor mutational burden. In addition to the traditional driver genes, we also identified some new possible ones such as MET, PIM1, and RSBN1L. Enrichment analysis revealed that genes mutated in PCNSL were involved in many pathways and functional protein activities, such as the extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules. The most common genetic alterations in PCNSL were identified using NGS. Mutations in multiple genes highlights the complex molecular heterogeneity of PCNSL. Enrichment analysis revealed possible pathogenesis. Further exploration of new driver genes could provide novel insights into diagnosis and precision medicine for PCNSL.

Systems Drug Discovery for Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma Based on Pathogenic Molecular Mechanism via Big Data Mining and Deep Learning Method

Diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is an aggressive heterogeneous disease. The most common subtypes of DLBCL include germinal center b-cell (GCB) type and activated b-cell (ABC) type. To learn more about the pathogenesis of two DLBCL subtypes (i.e., DLBCL ABC and DLBCL GCB), we firstly construct a candidate genome-wide genetic and epigenetic network (GWGEN) by big database mining. With the help of two DLBCL subtypes’ genome-wide microarray data, we identify their real GWGENs via system identification and model order selection approaches. Afterword, the core GWGENs of two DLBCL subtypes could be extracted from real GWGENs by principal network projection (PNP) method. By comparing core signaling pathways and investigating pathogenic mechanisms, we are able to identify pathogenic biomarkers as drug targets for DLBCL ABC and DLBCL GCD, respectively. Furthermore, we do drug discovery considering drug-target interaction ability, drug regulation ability, and drug toxicity. Among them, a deep neural network (DNN)-based drug-target interaction (DTI) model is trained in advance to predict potential drug candidates holding higher probability to interact with identified biomarkers. Consequently, two drug combinations are proposed to alleviate DLBCL ABC and DLBCL GCB, respectively.

FAM83A antisense RNA 1 (FAM83A-AS1) silencing impairs cell proliferation and induces autophagy via MET-AMPKɑ signaling in lung adenocarcinoma

Studies demonstrate that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play vital roles in cancer progression. However, the expression pattern and molecular mechanisms of lncRNA FAM83A-AS1 in lung cancer remain largely unclear. Here, we analyzed FAM83A-AS1 expression in lung cancer tissues from three RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq) datasets and validated these results using quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) in an independent set of lung adenocarcinoma. Cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and autophagy were analyzed after knockdown FAM83A-AS1 with siRNAs. The underlying molecular mechanisms of FAM83A-AS1 were performed by Western blot, qRT-PCR, and RNA-seq analysis. We found that FAM83A-AS1 was up-regulated in lung cancer and elevated expression was associated with poor patient survival. These results were confirmed using RT-PCR in an independent set of lung cancer. Functional study indicated that FAM83A-AS1 knockdown reduced cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and colony formation in cancer cells. FAM83A-AS1 silencing induced autophagy and cell cycle arrest at G2. Mechanistically, serval oncogenic proteins such as EGFR, MET, PI3K, and K-RAS were decreased upon FAM83A-AS1 silencing, while phosphor AMPKα and ULK1 were increased. Based on the above results, we believe that FAM83A-AS1 may have potential as a diagnosis/prognosis marker and its oncogenic role and autophagy regulation may be through MET-AMPKα signaling, which could lead to potential targeting for lung cancer therapy.

Artonin F Induces the Ubiquitin-Proteasomal Degradation of c-Met and Decreases Akt-mTOR Signaling

Targeted therapies that selectively inhibit certain molecules in cancer cells have been considered promising for cancer treatment. In lung cancer, evidence has suggested that mesenchymal-epithelial transition factor (c-Met) oncoprotein drives cancer progression through its signaling transduction pathway. In this paper, we report the downregulation of c-Met by artonin F, a flavonoid isolated from Artocarpus gomezianus. Artonin F was found to be dominantly toxic to lung cancer cells by mediating apoptosis. With regard to its mechanism of action, artonin F downregulated c-Met expression, consequently suppressed the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling, increased Bax expression, decreased Bcl-2 expression, and activated caspase-3. The depletion of c-Met was mediated by ubiquitin-proteasomal degradation following co-treatment with artonin F, with the proteasome inhibitor MG132 reversing its c-Met-targeting effect. The immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that artonin F significantly promoted the formation of the c-Met–ubiquitin complex. Given that ubiquitin-specific protease 8 (USP8) prevents c-Met degradation by deubiquitination, we performed a preliminary in silico molecular docking and observed that artonin F blocked the catalytic site of USP8. In addition, artonin F interacted with the catalytic residues of palmitoylating enzymes. By acting as a competitive inhibitor, artonin F could reduce the degree of palmitoylation of c-Met, which affected its stability and activity. In conclusion, c-Met is critical for cancer cell survival and the failure of chemotherapeutic regimens. This novel information on the c-Met downregulating effect of artonin F will be beneficial for the development of efficient anticancer strategies or targeted therapies.

Therapeutic Strategies for Ovarian Cancer in Point of HGF/c-MET Targeting

Ovarian cancer is the fifth leading cause of cancer deaths in women and is regarded as one of the most difficult cancers to treat. Currently, studies are being conducted to develop therapeutic agents for effective treatment of ovarian cancer. In this review, we explain the properties of the hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)/mesenchymal-epithelial transition factor (c-MET) and how the signaling pathway of HGF/c-MET is activated in different cancers and involved in tumorigenesis and metastasis of ovarian cancer. We present the findings of clinical studies using small chemicals or antibodies targeting HGF/c-MET signaling in various cancer types, particularly in ovarian cancer. We also discuss that HGF/c-MET-targeted therapy, when combined with chemo drugs, could be an effective strategy for ovarian cancer therapeutics.

An updated patent review of small-molecule c-Met kinase inhibitors (2018-present)

INTRODUCTION

c-Met tyrosine kinase receptor is a high-affinity ligand of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). c-Met is widely expressed in a variety of normal human tissues, but shows abnormally high expression, amplification or mutation in tumour tissues such as lung, gastric and breast cancers. Therefore, the use of c-Met as a target can achieve the inhibition of a series of abnormal physiological processes such as tumourigenesis, development and metastasis. A number of small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors targeting c-Met have been successfully marketed.

AREAS COVERED

This article reviews recent advances in patented c-Met small molecule inhibitors and their inhibitory activity against various cancer cells from 2018 to date.

EXPERT OPINION

To date, small molecule inhibitors targeting c-Met have demonstrated impressive therapeutic efficacy in the clinical setting. Most recent patents have focused on addressing the direction of c-Met amplification and overexpression. Despite the great success in the development of selective c-Met inhibitors, the effects of bypass secretion and mutagenesis have led to a need for new c-Met small molecule inhibitors that are safe, efficient, selective and less toxic with novel structures and effective against other targets.

Cabozantinib for HCC Treatment, From Clinical Back to Experimental Models

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Patients with early-stage HCC can be treated successfully with surgical resection or liver transplantation. However, the usual late diagnosis of HCC precludes curative treatments, and systemic therapies are the only viable option for inoperable patients. Sorafenib, an orally available multikinase inhibitor, is a systemic therapy approved for treating patients with advanced HCC yet providing limited benefits. Consequently, new drugs have been developed to overcome sorafenib resistance and improve patients' prognoses. A new promising strategy is using c-MET inhibitors, such as cabozantinib, as activation of c-MET occurs in up to 40% of HCC patients. In particular, cabozantinib, in combination with the checkpoint inhibitor atezolizumab, is currently in phase 3 clinical trial for HCC, and the results are eagerly awaited. Herein, we summarize and review the drugs approved for the treatment of advanced HCC, mainly focusing on the clinical and preclinical efficacy evaluation of cabozantinib. Also, we report the available preclinical data on cabozantinib-based combination therapies for HCC, current obstacles for cabozantinib therapy, and the future directions for cabozantinib-based treatment for HCC.

Insuline-Like Growth Factor-2 (IGF2) and Hepatocyte Growth Factor (HGF) Promote Lymphomagenesis in p53-null Mice in Tissue-specific and Estrogen-signaling Dependent Manners

Background: Trp53^-/- mice are prone to develop lymphomas at old ages. Factors promoting this tumorigenesis are unknown. Here, we showed human ovulatory follicular fluid (FF) largely promotes lymphomagenesis in Trp53^-/- mice at earlier ages. Meanwhile, we clarified that IGF2 and HGF are important cell transforming factors within FF. Methods: To induce tumor formation, 5% FFs, 100 ng/ml IGF2, 20 ng/ml HGF, or both IGF2 and HGF in a volume of 200 µl PBS, was injected into 8-wk-old female Trp53 ^-/- mice at the mammary fat pad. The injection was repeated weekly for up to 7 weeks or extending to 13 weeks to observe the accumulative incidence of lymphomagenesis. Immunohistochemistry staining and gene rearrangement analysis were used to identify the tumor type. Results: By injecting FF into the mammary fat pad weekly, lymphomas developed in 8/16 (50%) of mice by seven weeks. We identified IGF2 and HGF in FF is largely responsible for this activity. The same weekly injection of IGF2, HGF, and their combination induced lymphomas in 4/11 (36%), 3/8 (38%), and 6/9 (67%) mice, respectively. Interestingly, tumorigenesis was induced only when those were injected into the adipose tissues in the mammary gland, but not when injected into non-adipose sites. We also found this tumor-promoting activity is estradiol (E2)-dependent and relies on estrogen receptor (ER) α expression in the adipose stroma. No tumor or only tiny tumor was yielded when the ovaries were resected or when ER is antagonized. Finally, an extension of the weekly FF-injection to 13 weeks did not further increase the lymphomagenesis rate, suggesting an effect on pre-initiated cancer cells. Conclusions: Taken together, the study disclosed a robust tumor-promoting effect of IGF2 and HGF in the p53 loss-initiated lymphomagenesis depending on an adipose microenvironment in the presence of E2. In light of the clarity of this spontaneous tumor promotion model, we provide a new tool for studying p53-mediated lymphomagenesis and suggest that, as a chemoprevention test, this is a practical model to perform.

Molecular mechanism study of HGF/c-MET pathway activation and immune regulation for a tumor diagnosis model

Background

Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) binds to the c-mesenchymal-epithelial transition (C-MET) receptor and activates downstream signaling pathways, playing an essential role in the development of various cancers. Given the role of this signaling pathway, the primary therapeutic direction focuses on identifying and designing HGF inhibitors, antagonists and other molecules to block the binding of HGF to C-MET, thereby limiting the abnormal state of other downstream genes.

Methods

This study focuses on the analysis of immune-related genes and corresponding immune functions that are significantly associated with the HGF/c-MET pathway using transcriptome data from 11 solid tumors.

Results

We systematically analyzed 11 different cancers, including expression correlation, immune infiltration, tumor diagnosis and survival prognosis from HGF/c-MET pathway and immune regulation, two biological mechanisms having received extensive attention in cancer analysis.

Conclusion

We found that the HGF/c-MET pathway affected the tumor microenvironment mainly by interfering with expression levels of other genes. Immune infiltration is another critical factor involved in changes to the tumor microenvironment. The downstream immune-related genes activated by the HGF/c-MET pathway regulate immune-related pathways, which in turn affect the degree of infiltration of immune cells. Immune infiltration is significantly associated with cancer development and prognosis.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-021-02051-2.

The NHance® Mutation-Equipped Anti-MET Antibody ARGX-111 Displays Increased Tissue Penetration and Anti-Tumor Activity in Advanced Cancer Patients

Dysregulation of MET signaling has been implicated in tumorigenesis and metastasis. ARGX-111 combines complete blockade of this pathway with enhanced tumor cell killing and was investigated in 24 patients with MET-positive advanced cancers in a phase 1b study at four dose levels (0.3–10 mg/kg). ARGX-111 was well tolerated up to 3 mg/kg (MTD). Anti-tumor activity was observed in nearly half of the patients (46%) with a mean duration of treatment of 12 weeks. NHance^® mutations in the Fc of ARGX-111 increased affinity for the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) at acidic pH, stimulating transcytosis across FcRn-expressing cells and radiolabeled ARGX-111 accumulated in lymphoid tissues, bone and liver, organs expressing FcRn at high levels in a biodistribution study using human FcRn transgenic mice. In line with this, we observed, in a patient with MET-amplified (>10 copies) gastric cancer, diminished metabolic activity in multiple metastatic lesions in lymphoid and bone tissues by 18F-FDG-PET/CT after two infusions with 0.3 mg/kg ARGX-111. When escalated to 1 mg/kg, a partial response was reached. Furthermore, decreased numbers of CTC (75%) possibly by the enhanced tumor cell killing witnessed the modes of action of the drug, warranting further clinical investigation of ARGX-111.

Inositol treatment inhibits medulloblastoma through suppression of epigenetic-driven metabolic adaptation

Deregulation of chromatin modifiers plays an essential role in the pathogenesis of medulloblastoma, the most common paediatric malignant brain tumour. Here, we identify a BMI1-dependent sensitivity to deregulation of inositol metabolism in a proportion of medulloblastoma. We demonstrate mTOR pathway activation and metabolic adaptation specifically in medulloblastoma of the molecular subgroup G4 characterised by a BMI1High;CHD7Low signature and show this can be counteracted by IP6 treatment. Finally, we demonstrate that IP6 synergises with cisplatin to enhance its cytotoxicity in vitro and extends survival in a pre-clinical BMI1High;CHD7Low xenograft model.

Emerging trends in colorectal cancer: Dysregulated signaling pathways (Review)

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most frequently detected type of cancer, and the second most common cause of cancer‑related mortality globally. The American Cancer Society predicted that approximately 147,950 individuals would be diagnosed with CRC, out of which 53,200 individuals would succumb to the disease in the USA alone in 2020. CRC‑related mortality ranks third among both males and females in the USA. CRC arises from 3 major pathways: i) The adenoma‑carcinoma sequence; ii) serrated pathway; and iii) the inflammatory pathway. The majority of cases of CRC are sporadic and result from risk factors, such as a sedentary lifestyle, obesity, processed diets, alcohol consumption and smoking. CRC is also a common preventable cancer. With widespread CRC screening, the incidence and mortality from CRC have decreased in developed countries. However, over the past few decades, CRC cases and mortality have been on the rise in young adults (age, <50 years). In addition, CRC cases are increasing in developing countries with a low gross domestic product (GDP) due to lifestyle changes. CRC is an etiologically heterogeneous disease classified by tumor location and alterations in global gene expression. Accumulating genetic and epigenetic perturbations and aberrations over time in tumor suppressor genes, oncogenes and DNA mismatch repair genes could be a precursor to the onset of colorectal cancer. CRC can be divided as sporadic, familial, and inherited depending on the origin of the mutation. Germline mutations in APC and MLH1 have been proven to play an etiological role, resulting in the predisposition of individuals to CRC. Genetic alterations cause the dysregulation of signaling pathways leading to drug resistance, the inhibition of apoptosis and the induction of proliferation, invasion and migration, resulting in CRC development and metastasis. Timely detection and effective precision therapies based on the present knowledge of CRC is essential for successful treatment and patient survival. The present review presents the CRC incidence, risk factors, dysregulated signaling pathways and targeted therapies.

Multiple primary cancers (renal papillary, lymphoma and teratoma) and hepatic cysts in association with a pathogenic germline mutation in the MET gene

Activating germline mutations of the MET gene are associated with hereditary papillary renal cancer. This a very rare autosomal dominant condition, which is usually considered not to display a phenotype of multiple types of malignancy. However, this report describes the case of a man who has been affected with testicular teratoma, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and multiple hepatic cysts, as well as multiple papillary renal cancers. There is good supporting evidence for roles of over-expression/activity of the HGF/MET ligand-receptor in development of these tumours, raising the possibility of other increased cancer risks associated with activating germline MET gene mutations.

The landscape of new drugs in extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma

To date, much progress has been made in early-stage extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma (ENKTCL), and risk-adapted therapy with radiotherapy (RT) alone for the low-risk group and RT combined with asparaginase-based chemotherapy (CT) for the high-risk group yields favorable outcomes. However, optimal treatment strategies have not been defined yet for advanced-stage ENKTCL. Historically, ENKTCL responded poorly to conventional anthracycline-based chemotherapy probably because of inherent multidrug resistance (MDR). The fact that ENKTCL cells lack asparagine synthetase (ASNS) activity warranted the use of L-asparaginase or pegaspargase as frontline chemotherapies. Even though, due to high mortality of the disease, approximately 50% patients failing the frontline therapy arrived at dismal clinical outcomes with a median progression-free survival (PFS) less than 8 months. As distinctive molecular and biological subgroups are increasingly discovered within the disease entity of ENKTCL, novel targeted therapies and immunotherapy are of the urgent need for those heterogeneous subgroups. In this review, we sought to summarize the preclinical and clinical results of 6 categories of promising targeted therapy and immunotherapy for the treatment of ENKTCL, including monoclonal antibodies, immune checkpoint inhibitors, small-molecular inhibitors, epigenetic therapy, immunomodulatory drugs, and adoptive T-cell therapy, and these might change the landscape of treatment for ENKTCL in the near future.

Structural and Functional Insight Into the Glycosylation Impact Upon the HGF/c-Met Signaling Pathway

Upon interactions with its specific ligand hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), the c-Met signal is relayed to series of downstream pathways, exerting essential biological roles. Dysregulation of the HGF-c-Met signaling pathway has been implicated in the onset, progression and metastasis of various cancers, making the HGF-c-Met axis a promising therapeutic target. Both c-Met and HGF undergo glycosylation, which appears to be biologically relevant to their function and structural integrity. Different types of glycoconjugates in the local cellular environment can also regulate HGF/c-Met signaling by distinct mechanisms. However, detailed knowledge pertaining to the glycosylation machinery of the HGF-c-Met axis as well as its potential applications in oncology research is yet to be established. This mini review highlights the significance of the HGF-c-Met signaling pathway in physiological and pathological context, and discusses the molecular mechanisms by which affect the glycosylation of the HGF-c-Met axis. Owing to the crucial role played by glycosylation in the regulation of HGF/c-Met activity, better understanding of this less exploited field may contribute to the development of novel therapeutics targeting glycoepitopes.

Comprehensive review of targeted therapy for colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the most lethal and prevalent malignancies in the world and was responsible for nearly 881,000 cancer-related deaths in 2018. Surgery and chemotherapy have long been the first choices for cancer patients. However, the prognosis of CRC has never been satisfying, especially for patients with metastatic lesions. Targeted therapy is a new optional approach that has successfully prolonged overall survival for CRC patients. Following successes with the anti-EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) agent cetuximab and the anti-angiogenesis agent bevacizumab, new agents blocking different critical pathways as well as immune checkpoints are emerging at an unprecedented rate. Guidelines worldwide are currently updating the recommended targeted drugs on the basis of the increasing number of high-quality clinical trials. This review provides an overview of existing CRC-targeted agents and their underlying mechanisms, as well as a discussion of their limitations and future trends.

Clinicopathologic analysis of gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma with or without c-Met expression

Extranodal marginal zone lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma of the stomach is mainly associated with Helicobacter pylori infection, and H. pylori eradication therapy is often effective. However, 20-30% of the cases of MALT lymphoma are resistant to the eradication therapy, and translocation of the API2-MALT1 gene is often found in these cases. Most cases without translocation of API2-MALT1 are localized to the stomach, whereas some cases with this translocation are a more advanced stage of MALT lymphoma that spreads to other organs. The c-Met receptor is a prognostic factor involved in infiltration and metastasis in many malignant tumors, including gastric, pancreatic, lung, and kidney cancer. In the present study, the expression of c-Met in 43 cases of gastric MALT lymphomas was immunohistochemically examined and compared with clinicopathological factors. To elucidate the significance of c-Met in MALT lymphoma, the expression intensity of c-Met in 22 API2-MALT1 translocation-positive and 21 API2-MALT1 translocation-negative cases was scored, compared, and examined. The immunohistochemistry analysis revealed strong staining for c-Met in 21 API2-MALT1 translocation-positive cases and in 1 translocation-negative case (P = 0.00). This result indicates the relationship between strong expression of c-Met and the progression of MALT lymphoma with API2-MALT1 gene translocation.

Hepatocyte growth factor plays a dual role in tendon-derived stem cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation

Heterotopic ossification is common in tendon healing after trauma, but the detailed mechanisms remain unknown. Tendon-derived stem cells (TDSCs) are a type of progenitor cell found in the tendon niche, and their incorrect differentiation after trauma may lead to tendon calcification. The expression of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) presents drastic fluctuations in serum/tissue after trauma and was found to activate quiescent stellate cells and contribute to wound healing; however, its potential role in TDSCs remains elusive. In this study, TDSCs isolated from rats were cultured in media containing HGF with or without a signaling inhibitor, and the proliferation, migration, and differentiation ability of TDSCs were measured to determine the role and mechanism of HGF in TDSCs. We showed that HGF promotes TDSC proliferation and migration but inhibits TDSC osteogenic differentiation ability. HGF activated-HGF/c-Met, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) signaling, which was positively correlated with TDSCs proliferation and migration but negatively related to TDSC osteogenic differentiation ability. The phosphorylation of Smad1/5/8 was also negatively related to HGF/c-Met, MAPK/ERK1/2, and PI3K/AKT signaling, which demonstrated that the inhibition of osteogenic differentiation was dependent on BMP/Smad1/5/8 signaling. Overall, we showed that HGF could promote TDSCs proliferation and migration and inhibit osteogenic differentiation in vitro, suggesting a potential role for HGF as a cytokine treatment of tendon trauma.

Hepatocyte Growth Factor: A Microenvironmental Resource for Leukemic Cell Growth

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is characterized by the progressive expansion of B lymphocytes CD5+/CD23+ in peripheral blood, lymph-nodes, and bone marrow. The pivotal role played by the microenvironment in disease pathogenesis has become increasingly clear. We demonstrated that bone marrow stromal cells and trabecular bone cells sustain survival of leukemic B cells through the production of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). Indeed the trans-membrane kinase receptor for HGF, c-MET, is expressed on CLL cells and STAT3 TYR⁷⁰⁵ or AKT phosphorylation is induced after HGF/c-MET interaction. We have further observed that c-MET is also highly expressed in a peculiar type of cells of the CLL-microenvironment showing nurturing features for the leukemic clone (nurse-like cells: NLCs). Since HGF treatment drives monocytes toward the M2 phenotype and NLCs exhibit features of tumor associated macrophages of type 2 we suggested that HGF, released either by cells of the microenvironment or leukemic cells, exerts a double effect: (i) enhances CLL cells survival and (ii) drives differentiation of monocytes-macrophages to an oriented immune suppressive phenotype. We here discuss how paracrine, but also autocrine production of HGF by malignant cells, may favor leukemic clone expansion and resistance to conventional drug treatments in CLL, as well as in other hematological malignancies. Novel therapeutic approaches aimed to block HGF/c-MET interactions are further proposed.

Challenges facing antiangiogenesis therapy: The significant role of hypoxia-inducible factor and MET in development of resistance to anti-vascular endothelial growth factor-targeted therapies

It is now fully recognized that along with multiple physiological functions, angiogenesis is also involved in the fundamental process and pathobiology of several disorders including cancer. Recent studies have fully established the role of angiogenesis in cancer progression as well as invasion and metastasis. Consequently, many therapeutic agents such as monoclonal antibodies targeting angiogenesis pathway have been introduced in clinic with the hope for improving the outcomes of cancer therapy. Bevacizumab (Avastin®) was the first anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) targeting monoclonal antibody developed with this purpose and soon received its accelerated US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for treatment of patients with metastatic breast cancer in 2008. However, the failure to meet expecting results in different follow-up studies, forced FDA to remove bevacizumab approval for metastatic breast cancer. Investigations have now revealed that while suppressing VEGF pathway initially decreases tumor progression rate and vasculature density, activation of several interrelated pathways and signaling molecules following VEGF blockade compensate the insufficiency of VEGF and initially blocked angiogenesis, explaining in part the failure observed with bevacizumab single therapy. In present review, we introduce some of the main pathways and signaling molecules involved in angiogenesis and then propose how their interconnection may result in development of resistance to bevacizumab.

Extracellular Matrix Influencing HGF/c-MET Signaling Pathway: Impact on Cancer Progression

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a crucial component of the tumor microenvironment involved in numerous cellular processes that contribute to cancer progression. It is acknowledged that tumor–stromal cell communication is driven by a complex and dynamic network of cytokines, growth factors and proteases. Thus, the ECM works as a reservoir for bioactive molecules that modulate tumor cell behavior. The hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) produced by tumor and stromal cells acts as a multifunctional cytokine and activates the c-MET receptor, which is expressed in different tumor cell types. The HGF/c-MET signaling pathway is associated with several cellular processes, such as proliferation, survival, motility, angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis. Moreover, c-MET activation can be promoted by several ECM components, including proteoglycans and glycoproteins that act as bridging molecules and/or signal co-receptors. In contrast, c-MET activation can be inhibited by proteoglycans, matricellular proteins and/or proteases that bind and sequester HGF away from the cell surface. Therefore, understanding the effects of ECM components on HGF and c-MET may provide opportunities for novel therapeutic strategies. Here, we give a short overview of how certain ECM components regulate the distribution and activation of HGF and c-MET.

HGF/c-MET: A Promising Therapeutic Target in the Digestive System Cancers

The HGF/c-MET pathway is active in the development of digestive system cancers, indicating that inhibition of HGF/c-MET signaling may have therapeutic potential. Various HGF/c-MET signaling inhibitors, mainly c-MET inhibitors, have been tested in clinical trials. The observed efficacy and adverse events of some c-MET inhibitors were not very suitable for treating digestive system cancers. The development of new HGF/c-MET inhibitors in preclinical studies may bring promising treatments and synergistic combination (traditional anticancer drugs and c-MET inhibitors) strategies provided anacceptable safety and tolerability. Insights into miRNA biology and miRNA therapeutics have made miRNAs attractive tools to inhibit HGF/c-MET signaling. Recent reports show that several microRNAs participate in inhibiting HGF/c-MET signaling networks through antagonizing c-MET or HGF in digestive system cancers, and the miRNAs-HGF/c-MET axis plays crucial and novel roles for cancer treatment. In the current review, we will discuss recent findings about inhibitors of HGF/c-MET signaling in treating digestive system cancers, and how miRNAs regulate digestive system cancers via mediating HGF/c-MET pathway.

Analysis of hepatocyte growth factor immunostaining in the placenta of HIV-infected normotensive versus preeclamptic pregnant women

OBJECTIVE

Hepatocyte Growth Factor (HGF) plays a role in the migration and morphogenesis of different cell types and tissues. Preeclampsia (PE) is associated with deficient trophoblast invasion and placental insufficiency; hence HGF production is expected to be compromised. This study therefore aimed to immunolocalize and morphometrically analyse placental HGF in normotensive versus PE pregnancies stratified by HIV status and gestational age.

STUDY DESIGN

Normotensive (N; n = 40) and preeclamptic (PE; n = 80) women were stratified by HIV status (HIV- and HIV+), and gestational age i.e. early onset of PE (EOPE; <34 weeks) and late onset of PE (LOPE; ≥34 weeks). Placental tissues were stained using conventional immunohistochemistry, performed using mouse anti-human HGF antibody. Morphometric image analysis was performed using Zeiss Axio-Vision software.

RESULTS

HGF was immuno-localized within the syncytiotrophoblast, cytotrophoblast, endothelial and fibroblast-like cell populations of both conducting and exchange villi. Based on pregnancy type, HGF immunoexpression within the conducting villi was significantly different between Nvs EOPE (p = 0.0372) and EOPE vs LOPE (p = 0.0006). Within the exchange villi, no significant difference of HGF immunostaining was noted between N vs EOPE and N vs LOPE. A down-regulation of HGF immuno-expression was observed in LOPE compared to other groups within both villi types, albeit non-significant. Based on HIV status, no significant difference in HGF immuno-expression was demonstrated between HIV- vs HIV + within the exchange and conducting villi. However, the expression of HGF in HIV- group was elevated in both villi types. Across the groups, a significant difference was found between N+ vs EOPE- (p  = 0.0207), EOPE+ vs LOPE- (p = 0.0036) and EOPE- vs LOPE- (p = 0.0016) of the conducting villi while no significant difference was found within the exchange villi.

CONCLUSION

This novel study demonstrates that HGF was two-fold higher in conducting compared to exchange villi irrespective of the pregnancy type. HIV infection does not influence HGF expression within the conducting and exchange villi. The HGF/c-MET receptor complex may modulate the ligand expression within the placenta.

Comparative oncology DNA sequencing of canine T cell lymphoma via human hotspot panel

T-cell lymphoma (TCL) is an uncommon and aggressive form of human cancer. Lymphoma is the most common hematopoietic tumor in canines (companion animals), with TCL representing approximately 30% of diagnoses. Collectively, the canine is an appealing model for cancer research given the spontaneous occurrence of cancer, intact immune system, and phytogenetic proximity to humans. We sought to establish mutational congruence of the canine with known human TCL mutations in order to identify potential actionable oncogenic pathways. Following pathologic confirmation, DNA was sequenced in 16 canine TCL (cTCL) cases using a custom Human Cancer Hotspot Panel of 68 genes commonly mutated in human TCL. Sequencing identified 4,527,638 total reads with average length of 229 bases containing 346 unique variants and 1,474 total variants; each sample had an average of 92 variants. Among these, there were 258 germline and 32 somatic variants. Among the 32 somatic variants there were 8 missense variants, 1 splice junction variant and the remaining were intron or synonymous variants. A frequency of 4 somatic mutations per sample were noted with >7 mutations detected in MET, KDR, STK11 and BRAF. Expression of these associated proteins were also detected via Western blot analyses. In addition, Sanger sequencing confirmed three variants of high quality (MYC, MET, and TP53 missense mutation). Taken together, the mutational spectrum and protein analyses showed mutations in signaling pathways similar to human TCL and also identified novel mutations that may serve as drug targets as well as potential biomarkers.

The Microenvironment in Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Malignancies

The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) can cause a wide variety of cancers upon infection of different cell types and induces a highly variable composition of the tumor microenvironment (TME). This TME consists of both innate and adaptive immune cells and is not merely an aspecific reaction to the tumor cells. In fact, latent EBV-infected tumor cells utilize several specific mechanisms to form and shape the TME to their own benefit. These mechanisms have been studied largely in the context of EBV+ Hodgkin lymphoma, undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and EBV+ gastric cancer. This review describes the composition, immune escape mechanisms, and tumor cell promoting properties of the TME in these three malignancies. Mechanisms of susceptibility which regularly involve genes related to immune system function are also discussed, as only a small proportion of EBV-infected individuals develops an EBV-associated malignancy.

Immunotherapies: Exploiting the Immune System for Cancer Treatment

Cancer is a condition that has plagued humanity for thousands of years, with the first depictions dating back to ancient Egyptian times. However, not until recent decades have biological therapeutics been developed and refined enough to safely and effectively combat cancer. Three unique immunotherapies have gained traction in recent decades: adoptive T cell transfer, checkpoint inhibitors, and bivalent antibodies. Each has led to clinically approved therapies, as well as to therapies in preclinical and ongoing clinical trials. In this review, we outline the method by which these 3 immunotherapies function as well as any major immunotherapeutic drugs developed for treating a variety of cancers.

A novel generation 1928zT2 CAR T cells induce remission in extramedullary relapse of acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Background

Anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells have shown promise in the treatment of B cell acute lymphocytic leukemia (B-ALL). However, its efficacy in B-ALL patients with extramedullary involvement is limited due to poor responses and neurotoxicity. Here, we utilized a third generation of CAR T cell vector, which contains the Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (ITR) domain of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), to generate 1928zT2 T cells targeting CD19, and evaluated the efficacy of 1928zT2 T cells in relapse or refractory B-ALL patients with extramedullary involvement.

Methods

1928zT2 T cells were generated by 19-28z-TLR2 lentiviral vector transfection into primary human T lymphocytes. The anti-leukemia effect of 1928zT2 T cells were determined by killing assays and in xenografts. Three patients diagnosed as relapse or refractory ALL with extramedullary involvement were infused with 1928zT2 T cells, and the clinical responses were evaluated by BM smear, B-ultrasonography, PET/CT, histology, flow cytometry, qPCR, ELISA, and luminex assay.

Results

1928zT2 T cells exhibited enhanced effector function against CD19+ leukemic cells in vitro and in a xenograft model of human extramedullary leukemia. Notably, the 1928zT2 T cells eradicated extramedullary leukemia and induced complete remission in the three relapse and refractory ALL patients without serious adverse effects. 1928zT2 T cells expanded robustly in the circulation of these three patients and were detected in the cerebrospinal fluid of patient 3. These three patients experienced cytokine release syndrome (CRS) with grade 2 or 3, which remitted spontaneously or after tocilizumab treatment. None of the three patients suffered neurotoxicity or needed further intensive care.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrate that 1928zT2 T cells with TLR2 incorporation augment anti-leukemic effects, particularly for eradicating extramedullary leukemia cells, and suggest that the infusion of 1928zT2 T cells is an encouraging treatment for relapsed/refractory ALL patients with extramedullary involvement.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT02822326. Date of registration: July 4, 2016.

Role of the HGF/c-MET tyrosine kinase inhibitors in metastasic melanoma

Metastatic disease in a cancer patient still remains a therapeutic challenge. Metastatic process involves many steps, during which malignant cells succeed to activate cellular pathways promoting survival in hostile environment, engraftment and growth at the distant site from the primary tumor. Melanoma is known for its high propensity to produce metastases even at the early stages of the disease. Here we summarize the most important molecular mechanisms which were associated with the melanoma metastasis. Then, we specifically focus on the signaling pathway mediated by hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and its receptor c-Met, which play an important role during physiological processes and were been associated with tumorigenesis. We also focus on the effect of the small molecule inhibitors of the tyrosine kinase domain of the c-Met receptor and its effects on properties of melanoma cell. We summarize recent studies, which involved inhibition of the HGF/c-Met signaling in order to decrease melanoma growth and metastatic capacity.

Klotho, an anti-aging gene, acts as a tumor suppressor and inhibitor of IGF-1R signaling in diffuse large B cell lymphoma

Background

Klotho, is a transmembrane protein, performs as a circulating hormone and upstream modulator of the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and Wnt signaling pathways. These pathways are involved in the development and progression of B cell lymphoma. We aimed to explore the expression pattern and functional mechanism of Klotho in diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL).

Methods

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and western blotting were performed to detect the expression level of Klotho in DLBCL patients and cell lines. Tumor suppressive effect of Klotho was determined by both in vitro and in vivo studies. Signaling pathway activity was assessed by western blotting.

Results

Remarkable lower expression levels of Klotho were observed in DLBCL patients and cell lines. Enforced expression of Klotho could significantly induce cell apoptosis and inhibit tumor growth in DLBCL. Upregulation of Klotho resulted in declined activation of IGF-1R signaling, accompanied with decreased phosphorylation of its downstream targets, including AKT and ERK1/2. Moreover, xenograft model treated with either Klotho overexpression vector or recombinant human Klotho administration presented restrained tumor growth and lower Ki67 staining.

Conclusions

Our findings establish that Klotho performs as a tumor suppressor and modulator of IGF-1R signaling in DLBCL. Targeting Klotho may provide novel strategies for future therapeutic intervention.