Trypanosome infections in naturally infected horses and donkeys of three active sleeping sickness foci in the south of Chad

The burden of brucellosis in donkeys and its implications for public health and animal welfare: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background and Aim

Brucellosis is a globally significant zoonotic disease affecting a wide range of wild and domestic animals, with implications for human and animal health. Despite donkeys' crucial roles in agriculture, transportation, and livelihoods, there is limited research on the burden of brucellosis in this species. This study systematically reviews the prevalence and role of donkeys as reservoirs for Brucella spp., providing insights into their public health implications.

Materials and Methods

Using the PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar was conducted for studies published from 1990 to May 2024. Out of 1159 retrieved articles, 20 met the inclusion criteria. Data on study design, location, diagnostic methods, and brucellosis prevalence were extracted and analyzed using R statistical software. Pooled prevalence and heterogeneity were calculated, and the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale was employed to assess study quality.

Results

The pooled prevalence of brucellosis in 6785 donkeys across 20 studies was 10.23% (range: 0%-63.7%), with the highest prevalence reported in Asia (26.80%). While 15% of studies suggested that donkeys act as reservoirs for Brucella spp., direct evidence linking donkeys to disease transmission remains scarce. The disease's impact on donkey reproduction, including abortion and infertility, is underexplored, highlighting a significant research gap.

Conclusion

Brucellosis in donkeys represents a notable zoonotic and occupational risk. The limited data from East Africa, despite its high donkey population, emphasize the need for comprehensive epidemiological studies. Findings underscore the importance of targeted interventions, including biosecurity, public education, and enhanced diagnostic approaches, to mitigate brucellosis' impact on donkey health and its broader public health implications.

[Updating the northern tsetse distribution limit in Chad in the context of global change]

Background - Rationale

Tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) are obligate bloodfeeders that occur exclusively in Sub-Saharan Africa, where they are the vectors of trypanosomes causing HAT (human African trypanosomiasis) and AAT (African animal trypanosomiasis). In Chad, tsetse flies occur only in the most southern part of the country because of its favorable bioclimatic conditions. However, despite the importance of HAT and AAT in this country, very little is known about the current tsetse distribution, in particular its northern limit, which is of key importance for the surveillance of these diseases.

Material and methods - Results

A total of 217 biconical traps were deployed in 2021 and 2022 from the West to the East around the formerly known northern limit, resulting in 1,024 tsetse caught belonging to three different taxa: Glossina morsitans submorsitans (57%), G. tachinoides (39%) and G. fuscipes fuscipes (4%). In addition to the information gathered on the presence/absence of each tsetse taxon, we show a strong North-South shift of the northen tsetse distribution limit as compared to the previous works from 1966 to 1996, and a growing spatial fragmentation in more and more discrete pockets of tsetse presence.

Discussion - Conclusion

This North-South shift of the northern tsetse distribution limit in Chad is the likely consequence of the combined effect of severe draughts that affected the country, and increasing human pressure on land. This update of the tsetse northern limit will be of help to the national programmes in charge of HAT and AAT.

Performance of diagnostic tests for Trypanosoma brucei brucei in experimentally infected pigs

Animal African trypanosomosis is an important vector-borne disease of livestock in sub-Saharan Africa. Pigs seem relatively tolerant to trypanosome infection and could act as a reservoir of trypanosomes affecting animals and humans. Our ability to reliably detect trypanosome infection in pigs depends on the performance of diagnostic tools, which is not well known. In pigs experimentally infected with Trypanosoma brucei brucei, we evaluated the performance of parasitological Buffy Coat Technique (BCT), two molecular (TBR and 5.8S PCR) and four serological tests (CATT, HAT Sero-K-Set rapid diagnostic test-RDT, indirect ELISA, immune trypanolysis). Most diagnostic tests showed high specificity, estimated at 100% (95% CI = 74-100%) with the exception of CATT and RDT whose specificity varied between 100% (95% CI = 74-100%) to 50% (95% CI = 7-93%) during the experiment. The sensitivity of each test fluctuated over the course of the infection. The percentage of positive BCT over the infection (30%) was lower than of positive PCR (56% and 62%, depending on primers). Among the serological tests, the percentage of positive tests was 97%, 96%, 86% and 84% for RDT, ELISA, immune trypanolysis and CATT, respectively. Fair agreement was observed between both molecular tests (κ = 0.36). Among the serological tests, the agreement between the ELISA and the RDT was substantial (κ = 0.65). Our results on the T.b. brucei infection model suggest that serological techniques are efficient in detecting the chronic phase of infection, PCR is able to detect positive samples several months after parasites inoculation while BCT becomes negative. BCT examination and RDT are useful to get a quick information in the field, and BCT can be used for treatment decision. ELISA appears most suited for epidemiological studies. The selection of diagnostic tests for trypanosomosis in pigs depends on the context, the objectives and the available resources.

Prevalence of pathogenic trypanosome species in naturally infected cattle of three sleeping sickness foci of the south of Chad

Although a diversity of trypanosome species have been detected in various animal taxa from human African trypanosomosis (HAT) foci, cattle trypanosomosis has not been addressed in HAT foci of west and central African countries including Chad. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of pathogenic trypanosome species in cattle from three HAT foci of the south of Chad. Blood samples were collected from 1466 randomly selected cattle from HAT foci of Mandoul, Maro, and Moïssala in the south of Chad. For each animal, the sex, age and body condition were recorded. Rapid diagnostic test (RDT) was used to search Trypanosoma brucei gambiense antibodies while the capillary tube centrifugation (CTC) test and PCR-based methods enabled to detect and identify trypanosome species. From the 1466 cattle, 45 (3.1%) were positive to RDT. The prevalence of trypanosome infections revealed by CTC and PCR-based method were respectively 2.7% and 11.1%. Trypanosomes of the subgenus Trypanozoon were dominant (6.5%) followed by T. congolense savannah (2.9%), T. congolense forest (2.5%) and T. vivax (0.8%). No animal was found with DNA of human infective trypanosome (T. b. gambiense). The overall prevalence of trypanosome infections was significantly higher in animal from the Maro HAT focus (13.8%) than those from Mandoul (11.1%) and Moïssala HAT foci (8.0%). This prevalence was also significantly higher in animal having poor body condition (77.5%) than those with medium (11.2%) and good (0.5%) body condition. The overall prevalence of single and mixed infections were respectively 9.4% and 1.6%. This study revealed natural infections of several pathogenic trypanosome species in cattle from different HAT foci of Chad. It showed similar transmission patterns of these trypanosome species and highlighted the need of developing control strategies for animal African trypanosomosis (AAT) with the overarching goal of improving animal health and the economy of smallholder farmers.

Deep kinetoplast genome analyses result in a novel molecular assay for detecting Trypanosoma brucei gambiense-specific minicircles

The World Health Organization targeted Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (Tbg) human African trypanosomiasis for elimination of transmission by 2030. Sensitive molecular markers that specifically detect Tbg type 1 (Tbg1) parasites will be important tools to assist in reaching this goal. We aim at improving molecular diagnosis of Tbg1 infections by targeting the abundant mitochondrial minicircles within the kinetoplast of these parasites. Using Next-Generation Sequencing of total cellular DNA extracts, we assembled and annotated the kinetoplast genome and investigated minicircle sequence diversity in 38 animal- and human-infective trypanosome strains. Computational analyses recognized a total of 241 Minicircle Sequence Classes as Tbg1-specific, of which three were shared by the 18 studied Tbg1 strains. We developed a minicircle-based assay that is applicable on animals and as specific as the TgsGP-based assay, the current golden standard for molecular detection of Tbg1. The median copy number of the targeted minicircle was equal to eight, suggesting our minicircle-based assay may be used for the sensitive detection of Tbg1 parasites. Annotation of the targeted minicircle sequence indicated that it encodes genes essential for the survival of the parasite and will thus likely be preserved in natural Tbg1 populations, the latter ensuring the reliability of our novel diagnostic assay.

Molecular Identification of Trypanosome Diversity in Domestic Animals Reveals the Presence of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in Historical Foci of Human African Trypanosomiasis in Gabon

Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) is an infectious disease caused by protozoan parasites belonging to the Trypanosoma genus. In sub-Saharan Africa, there is a significant threat as many people are at risk of infection. Despite this, HAT is classified as a neglected tropical disease. Over the last few years, several studies have reported the existence of a wide diversity of trypanosome species circulating in African animals. Thus, domestic and wild animals could be reservoirs of potentially dangerous trypanosomes for human populations. However, very little is known about the role of domestic animals in maintaining the transmission cycle of human trypanosomes in central Africa, especially in Gabon, where serious cases of infection are recorded each year, sometimes leading to hospitalization or death of patients. Komo-Mondah, located within Estuaries (Gabonese province), stays the most active HAT disease focus in Gabon, with a mean of 20 cases per year. In this study, we evaluated the diversity and prevalence of trypanosomes circulating in domestic animals using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique. We found that 19.34% (53/274) of the domestic animals we studied were infected with trypanosomes. The infection rates varied among taxa, with 23.21% (13/56) of dogs, 16.10% (19/118) of goats, and 21.00% (21/100) of sheep infected. In addition, we have observed a global mixed rate of infections of 20.75% (11/53) among infected individuals. Molecular analyses revealed that at least six Trypanosome species circulate in domestic animals in Gabon (T. congolense, T. simiae, T. simiae Tsavo, T. theileri, T. vivax, T. brucei (including T. brucei brucei, and T. brucei gambiense)). In conclusion, our study showed that domestic animals constitute important potential reservoirs for trypanosome parasites, including T. brucei gambiense, which is responsible for HAT.

Evaluation of the Re-emergence Risk of Human African Trypanosomiasis in the Southwestern Burkina Faso, A Gold-Bearing Mutation Area

PURPOSE

The boom in Burkina Faso's artisanal gold mining since 2007 has attracted populations from Côte d'Ivoire and Guinea, which are the West African countries most affected by human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) and therefore increases its risk of re-emergence. Our aim was to update the HAT data in Burkina Faso in the risk of the re-emergence context with the advent of artisanal gold mining.

METHODS

The study was carried out in the southwestern Burkina Faso where entomological surveys were conducted using biconical traps in March 2017. Follow by an active medical survey in April 2017, which was targeted the gold panners in 7 villages closer to artisanal gold sites, using CATT, mini-anion exchange centrifugation technique, trypanolysis test (TL) and ELISA test to measure human/tsetse contacts. The buffy coat technique and the TL were also applied in pigs to check their reservoir role of human trypanosomes.

RESULTS

Our results have shown no case of HAT among 958 individuals tested and all the 50 pigs were also negative, but the level of antibodies against tsetse saliva evidenced by ELISA revealed low human/tsetse contact. Moreover, gold panners practise agriculture and breeding in an infected tsetse area, which are increased the risk.

CONCLUSION

Our results illustrate that the risk of re-emergence is low. The passive surveillance system implemented in 2015 in southwestern Burkina Faso is needed to increase the sentinel sites to better cover this area by taking into account the gold mining. Finally, awareness-raising activities are needed among populations about HAT.

Free-ranging pigs identified as a multi-reservoir of Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma congolense in the Vavoua area, a historical sleeping sickness focus of Côte d'Ivoire

Background

The existence of an animal reservoir of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (T. b. gambiense), the agent of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), may compromise the interruption of transmission targeted by World Health Organization. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of trypanosomes in pigs and people in the Vavoua HAT historical focus where cases were still diagnosed in the early 2010’s.

Methods

For the human survey, we used the CATT, mini-anion exchange centrifugation technique and immune trypanolysis tests. For the animal survey, the buffy coat technique was also used as well as the PCR using Trypanosoma species specific, including the T. b. gambiense TgsGP detection using single round and nested PCRs, performed from animal blood samples and from strains isolated from subjects positive for parasitological investigations.

Results

No HAT cases were detected among 345 people tested. A total of 167 pigs were investigated. Free-ranging pigs appeared significantly more infected than pigs in pen. Over 70% of free-ranging pigs were positive for CATT and parasitological investigations and 27–43% were positive to trypanolysis depending on the antigen used. T. brucei was the most prevalent species (57%) followed by T. congolense (24%). Blood sample extracted DNA of T. brucei positive subjects were negative to single round TgsGP PCR. However, 1/22 and 6/22 isolated strains were positive with single round and nested TgsGP PCRs, respectively.

Discussion

Free-ranging pigs were identified as a multi-reservoir of T. brucei and/or T. congolense with mixed infections of different strains. This trypanosome diversity hinders the easy and direct detection of T. b. gambiense. We highlight the lack of tools to prove or exclude with certainty the presence of T. b. gambiense. This study once more highlights the need of technical improvements to explore the role of animals in the epidemiology of HAT.

Significant efforts to control human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) since the 1990’s have drastically reduced the prevalence of the disease. Its elimination as a public health problem is being achieved. World Health Organization now targets the interruption of transmission for 2030. However, potential animal reservoirs of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (T. b. gambiense), the main agent of HAT, may compromise this ambitious objective. It is the case in the Vavoua historical focus in Côte d’Ivoire where HAT cases were still diagnosed in the early 2010’s. During a study conducted in this area, we scrutinized the trypanosomes circulating in pigs and people sharing the same environment using serological, immunological, parasitological and molecular tools. No HAT cases were detected. We showed that T. brucei s.l. and T. congolense actively circulated in free-ranging pigs. Even if no tools were sensitive and specific enough to unambiguously identify T. b. gambiense directly from biological samples, six isolated strains from pigs positive for trypanosomes were amplified for TgsGP, the only currently accepted T. b. gambiense specific molecular marker. The apparent discrepancies between the presence of T. b. gambiense in pigs despite the absence of human cases is discussed. These results stress the need for an efficient “molecular toolbox” to easily detect and identify T. b. gambiense in any animal it may infect.

Diversity of tsetse flies and trypanosome species circulating in the area of Lake Iro in southeastern Chad

BACKGROUND

African trypanosomiases are vector-borne diseases that affect humans and livestock in sub-Saharan Africa. Although data have been collected on tsetse fauna as well as trypanosome infections in tsetse flies and mammals in foci of sleeping sickness in Chad, the situation of tsetse fly-transmitted trypanosomes remains unknown in several tsetse-infested areas of Chad. This study was designed to fill this epidemiological knowledge gap by determining the tsetse fauna as well as the trypanosomes infecting tsetse flies in the area of Lake Iro in southeastern Chad.

METHODS

Tsetse flies were trapped along the Salamat River using biconical traps. The proboscis and tsetse body were removed from each fly. DNA was extracted from the proboscis using proteinase K and phosphate buffer and from the tsetse body using Chelex 5%. Tsetse flies were identified by amplifying and sequencing the cytochrome c oxydase I gene of each tsetse fly. Trypanosome species were detected by amplifying and sequencing the internal transcribed spacer 1 of infecting trypanosomes.

RESULTS

A total of 617 tsetse flies were trapped; the apparent density of flies per trap per day was 2. 6. Of the trapped flies, 359 were randomly selected for the molecular identification and for the detection of infecting trypanosomes. Glossina morsitans submorsitans (96.1%) was the dominant tsetse fly species followed by G. fuscipes fuscipes (3.1%) and G. tachinoides (0.8%). Four trypanosome species, including Trypanosoma vivax, T. simiae, T. godfreyi and T. congolense savannah, were detected. Both single infection (56.7%) and mixed infections of trypanosomes (4.6%) were detected in G. m. submorsitans. The single infection included T. simiae (20.5%), T. congolense savannah (16.43%), T. vivax (11.7%) and T. godfreyi (9.8%). The trypanosome infection rate was 61.4% in G. m. submorsitans, 72.7% in G. f. fuscipes and 66.6% in G. tachinoides. Trypanosome infections were more prevalent in tsetse bodies (40.6%) than in the proboscis (16.3%).

CONCLUSION

This study revealed the presence of different tsetse species and a diversity of trypanosomes pathogenic to livestock in the area of Lake Iro. The results highlight the risks and constraints that animal African trypanosomiasis pose to livestock breeding and the importance of assessing trypanosome infections in livestock in this area.

Molecular identification of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in naturally infected pigs, dogs and small ruminants confirms domestic animals as potential reservoirs for sleeping sickness in Chad

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) has been targeted for zero transmission to humans by 2030. Animal reservoirs of gambiense-HAT could jeopardize these elimination goals. This study was undertaken to identify potential host reservoirs for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense by detecting its natural infections in domestic animals of Chadian HAT foci. Blood samples were collected from 267 goats, 181 sheep, 154 dogs, and 67 pigs. Rapid diagnostic test (RDT) and capillary tube centrifugation (CTC) were performed to search for trypanosomes. DNA was extracted from the buffy coat, and trypanosomes of the subgenus Trypanozoon as well as T. b. gambiense were identified by PCR. Of 669 blood samples, 19.4% were positive by RDT and 9.0% by CTC. PCR revealed 150 animals (22.4%) with trypanosomes belonging to Trypanozoon, including 18 (12%) T. b. gambiense. This trypanosome was found in all investigated animal species and all HAT foci. Between animal species or villages, no significant differences were observed in the number of animals harboring T. b. gambiense DNA. Pigs, dogs, sheep and goats appeared to be potential reservoir hosts for T. b. gambiense in Chad. The identification of T. b. gambiense in all animal species of all HAT foci suggests that these animals should be considered when designing new control strategies for sustainable elimination of HAT. Investigations aiming to decrypt their specific role in each epidemiological setting are important to achieve zero transmission of HAT.