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Malone CJ, Oksanen A, Mukaratirwa S, Sharma R, Jenkins E. From wildlife to humans: The global distribution of Trichinella species and genotypes in wildlife and wildlife-associated human trichinellosis. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2024; 24:100934. [PMID: 38651034 PMCID: PMC11033181 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.100934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Zoonotic nematodes of the genus Trichinella are foodborne parasites that have a global distribution in wild carnivores and omnivores, with spillover and spillback into domestic livestock and people, with concomitant trade and health consequences. Historically, most human cases were linked to domestic pigs infected with Trichinella spiralis, but under current high biosecurity swine production in many countries, wildlife have become a more important source of human trichinellosis. The aim of this review is to update the global distribution of Trichinella species and genotypes reported in wildlife, as well as reported human outbreaks from the consumption of wildlife. Using several online databases and by "snowballing" references, hundreds of reports of Trichinella spp. in wildlife published between January 1991 and December 2023 provide an important update to the host and geographic range for each of the recognized 13 species/genotypes, grouped by continent. Surveillance effort was highest in Europe and North America, while Africa, Asia, Central and South America have had limited surveillance, in some instances with human cases serving as sentinels of transmission in a region. Dozens of human outbreaks are described, with wild boars (Sus scrofa) being the most frequently implicated wildlife species in human outbreaks globally. Bears are an important source of infection in North America, for wildlife tourism, and importation of bear meat has also been implicated in multicountry outbreaks. The largest study limitation was the dearth of molecular identification of larvae in both wildlife surveillance studies and human outbreaks, particulary in under-studied regions. We highlight the need for enhanced molecular epidemiological approaches to outbreaks of this important foodborne parasite, and emphasize the need for a One Health approach to manage Trichinella spp. which transmit among terrestrial and marine wildlife (including migratory birds), pigs, horses, and people, often across large geographic scales and borders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cody J. Malone
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Antti Oksanen
- Finnish Food Authority, (FINPAR), Elektroniikkatie 3, FI-90590, Oulu, Finland
| | - Samson Mukaratirwa
- One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis
- School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Rajnish Sharma
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
- Centre for One Health, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
| | - Emily Jenkins
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
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Langner T, Otranto D, Bezerra-Santos MA, Franzen J, Johne A, Tonanzi D, Pfeffer M, Birka S. Detection of Spirocerca lupi and an unknown Trichinella-like nematode in raccoon ( Procyon lotor). Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2024; 23:100911. [PMID: 38352914 PMCID: PMC10862008 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.100911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
The raccoon Procyon lotor (Carnivora: Procyonidae) is an invasive species of growing importance for the introduction of alien pathogens or as additional hosts for autochthonous pathogens in Europe, including zoonotic parasites. As the population is steadily increasing and outcompeting the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Germany, the consumption of raccoon meat raises concerns about pathogens they may transmit. Therefore the presence of Trichinella larvae was here investigated in muscle samples (n = 904) of raccoons from northern Germany. No Trichinella larvae were found, thus confirming the general low occurrence of this parasite in Germany. However, Spirocerca lupi (n = 12) and an unidentified Trichinella-like nematode (n = 1) were accidently detected in the examined samples. The first is not a zoonotic parasite but has a high veterinary relevance as it can cause severe diseases in dogs. It is the first documented autochthonous infection of this nematode in Germany. The larvae of an unidentified Trichinella-like nematode were found in high abundance in all examined muscles of one raccoon, though they could not be identified to species level. Histological investigation revealed intramuscular cystic structures. This is the largest study investigating muscular parasites of raccoons in Europe so far, which suggests that this invasive animal species is infected by S. lupi and by a yet unknown Trichinella -like parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Langner
- Leipzig University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Food Hygiene, Germany
| | - Domenico Otranto
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Str. prov. per Casamassima km 3, Valenzano, Bari, 70010, Italy
| | - Marcos Antonio Bezerra-Santos
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Str. prov. per Casamassima km 3, Valenzano, Bari, 70010, Italy
| | - Jan Franzen
- Institute of Animal Pathology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Annette Johne
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, NRL for Trichinella, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniele Tonanzi
- European Union Reference Laboratory for Parasites, Istituto Superiore Di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Martin Pfeffer
- Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 1, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stefan Birka
- Leipzig University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Food Hygiene, Germany
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Lobanov VA, Konecsni KA, Scandrett WB, Jenkins EJ. Identification of Trichinella taxa by ITS-1 amplicon next-generation sequencing with an improved resolution for detecting underrepresented genotypes in mixed natural infections. Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:466. [PMID: 38129932 PMCID: PMC10734138 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-06035-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Amplicon-based next-generation sequencing (NGS) has rapidly gained popularity as a powerful method for delineating taxa in complex communities, including helminths. Here, we applied this approach to identify species and genotypes of zoonotic nematodes of the Trichinella genus. A known limitation of the current multiplex PCR (mPCR) assay recommended by the International Commission on Trichinellosis is that it does not differentiate Trichinella nativa from T. chanchalensis. METHODS The new assay entails deep sequencing of an amplified variable fragment of the ribosomal cistron's (rDNA) internal transcribed spacer 1 using the Illumina platform. The assay was evaluated using first-stage larvae (L1) of select laboratory strains of various Trichinella taxa mixed in known proportions and then validated using archived L1 from 109 wildlife hosts. The species/genotypes of these L1 isolates from wildlife were previously determined using mPCR. RESULTS NGS data analysis for Trichinella laboratory strains selected as representative of North American fauna revealed a sequence representation bias. Trichinella pseudospiralis, a non-encapsulated species, was the most underrepresented when mixed with T. spiralis, T. murrelli, T. nativa and Trichinella T6 in equal quantities. However, five L1 of T. pseudospiralis were readily revealed by NGS in a mix with 2000 L1 of T. nativa (1:400 ratio). From naturally infected wildlife, all Trichinella taxa revealed by mPCR were also identified by NGS in 103 of 107 (96.3%) samples amplified on both assays. NGS identified additional taxa in 11 (10.3%) samples, whereas additional taxa were revealed by mPCR in only four (3.7%) samples. Most isolates comprised single or mixed infections of T. nativa and Trichinella T6. On NGS, T. chanchalensis (T13) was detected in combination with Trichinella T6 in a wolverine (Gulo gulo) and in combination with T. nativa and Trichinella T6 in a marten (Martes americana) from the Northwest Territories, Canada. CONCLUSIONS This new NGS assay demonstrates strong potential as a single assay for identifying all recognised Trichinella taxa as well as improved sensitivity for detecting under-represented and novel genotypes in mixed infections. In addition, we report a new host record for T. chanchalensis in American marten.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav A Lobanov
- Center for Food-borne and Animal Parasitology, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
| | - Kelly A Konecsni
- Center for Food-borne and Animal Parasitology, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - W Brad Scandrett
- Center for Food-borne and Animal Parasitology, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Emily J Jenkins
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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Veronesi F, Deak G, Diakou A. Wild Mesocarnivores as Reservoirs of Endoparasites Causing Important Zoonoses and Emerging Bridging Infections across Europe. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12020178. [PMID: 36839450 PMCID: PMC9964259 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12020178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Mesocarnivores are small- or mid-sized carnivore species that display a variety of ecologies and behaviours. In Europe, wild mesocarnivores are represented by the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the golden jackal (Canis aureus), the European wildcat (Felis silvestris), the Mustelidae of the genera Meles, Martes, Mustela, Lutra, the invasive species of raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and American mink (Neogale vison). These abundant animals thrive in various habitats and often develop their activity close to human settlements. Thus, they may play an important role in the introduction, maintenance, and transmission of major parasitic zoonoses and promote bridging infections with domestic animals. Against this background, this article reports and discusses some of the most important endoparasites of wild mesocarnivores living in Europe, on the basis of their actual role as reservoirs, spreaders, or sentinels. The data derived from epizootiological studies in different European countries, and the proven or speculated implications of the detected endoparasites in human and domestic animals' health, are discussed. Through older and recent literature review, the state-of-the-art knowledge on the occurrence and prevalence of the parasites under consideration is presented, showing further, warranted investigations and the need for surveillance and vigilance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizia Veronesi
- Parasitology Laboratory of the University Teaching Hospital, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06124 Perugia, Italy
- Correspondence: (F.V.); (G.D.); (A.D.)
| | - Georgiana Deak
- Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
- Correspondence: (F.V.); (G.D.); (A.D.)
| | - Anastasia Diakou
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Correspondence: (F.V.); (G.D.); (A.D.)
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Zoonotic Pathogens in Eurasian Beavers (Castor fiber) in the Netherlands. J Wildl Dis 2022; 58:404-408. [PMID: 35245369 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-21-00097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Successful repopulation programs of Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber) have resulted in an increase in beaver populations throughout Europe. This may be of public health relevance because beavers can host multiple zoonotic pathogens. From March 2018 to March 2020, opportunistic testing of dead beavers was performed for hepatitis E virus, orthohantavirus, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Bartonella spp., extended-spectrum-betalactamase or AmpC (ESBL/AmpC-)-producing Enterobacteriaceae, Francisella tularensis, Leptospira spp., Neoehrlichia mikurensis, Babesia spp., Echinococcus multilocularis, Toxoplasma gondii, and Trichinella spp. From the 24 beavers collected, three zoonotic pathogens were detected. One beaver was positive for T. gondii, one was positive for ESBL/AmpC-producing Enterobacteriaceae, and one was positive for N. mikurensis. The latter finding indicates that beavers can be bitten by Ixodes ricinus and be exposed to tick-borne pathogens. The detected ESBL/AmpC-gene was blaCMY-2 in an Escherichia coli ST6599. The findings suggest that the role of beavers in the spread of zoonotic diseases in the Netherlands is currently limited.
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HERBIVORES AS ACCIDENTAL HOSTS FOR TRICHINELLA: SEARCH FOR EVIDENCE OF TRICHINELLA INFECTION AND EXPOSURE IN FREE-RANGING MOOSE (ALCES ALCES) IN A HIGHLY ENDEMIC SETTING. J Wildl Dis 2021; 57:116-124. [PMID: 33635991 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-19-00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Herbivores can be accidental hosts for the zoonotic nematode parasites Trichinella spp., which are endemic at high prevalence in wildlife in northeastern Europe. Using direct and indirect detection methods for Trichinella spp., we investigated samples from 463 wild moose (Alces alces) harvested by hunters in Estonia in 2015. A total of 460 moose were tested directly by artificial digestion of diaphragm muscle, 463 moose were tested indirectly by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and 34 moose also by western blot. Positive-control reference sera were from other host species. Nematode larvae were found in six muscle samples; five of which were pooled samples. None of the larvae were identified as Trichinella spp., based on their morphology and molecular analyses. Twelve moose (2.6%) were positive by ELISA, but none were positive by the western blot test. Trichinella spp. infection was not detected, but ELISA results may suggest Trichinella spp. exposure in a small proportion of moose in Estonia.
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Waindok P, Raue K, Grilo ML, Siebert U, Strube C. Predators in northern Germany are reservoirs for parasites of One Health concern. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:4229-4239. [PMID: 33547507 PMCID: PMC8599236 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-021-07073-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Urbanisation and invasion of wildlife into urban areas as well as human leisure activities create diverse wildlife-domestic animal-human interfaces, increasing the risk of (zoonotic) parasite spillover from sylvatic to domestic and synanthropic cycles. This study investigated the endo- and ectoparasite fauna, emphasising on parasites of One Health Concern, of the most common predators in northern Germany between November 2013 and January 2016. Eighty red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 18 stone martens (Martes foina) and nine raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) were available for the study. Overall, 79 (73.8%) of the examined predators (n=107) harboured at least one endoparasite. The most frequently detected endoparasites in red foxes were Toxocara canis (43.8% positive individuals), Capillaria spp. (36.3%), Alaria alata (25.0%), Echinococcus multilocularis (26.3%) and Uncinaria stenocephala (25.0%). Furthermore, Toxascaris leonina, Trichuris vulpis, Taenia ssp., Mesocestoides spp. and coccidian oocysts were observed. The endoparasite species richness in raccoon dogs was comparable to red foxes, while in stone martens, only Capillaria spp. were found. Muscle digestion for detection of Trichinella spp. and antigen testing for Giardia spp. did not show positive results. Ectoparasite analyses revealed infestations with ticks species of the genus Ixodes as well as Dermacentor reticulatus. Scabies mites were not present in digested skin samples, while Demodex spp. mites were observed by faecal flotation in one red fox. Furthermore, fleas (Archaeopsylla erinacei and Chaetopsylla globiceps) were observed in the fur of red foxes, while lice were not present in any predator species. However, infestation frequency with ectoparasites was with 19.2% generally low in available predator skins (n=99). Overall, the present study showed that predators in northern Germany serve as reservoirs for parasites of One Health concern, with four of the five most frequent endoparasites being zoonotic, highlighting the need of parasite surveillance in wildlife predators in order to implement measures avoiding spillovers to domestic animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Waindok
- Institute for Parasitology, Centre for Infection Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559, Hanover, Germany
| | - Katharina Raue
- Institute for Parasitology, Centre for Infection Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559, Hanover, Germany
| | - Miguel L Grilo
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany.,CIISA-Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ursula Siebert
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Christina Strube
- Institute for Parasitology, Centre for Infection Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559, Hanover, Germany.
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Sharma R, Thompson P, Elkin B, Mulders R, Branigan M, Pongracz J, Wagner B, Scandrett B, Hoberg E, Rosenthal B, Jenkins E. Trichinella pseudospiralis in a wolverine (Gulo gulo) from the Canadian North. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2019; 9:274-280. [PMID: 31289720 PMCID: PMC6593184 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2019.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Species of Trichinella are a globally distributed assemblage of nematodes, often with distinct host ranges, which include people, domestic, and wild animals. Trichinella spp. are important in northern Canada, where dietary habits of people and methods of meat preparation (drying, smoking, fermenting as well as raw) increase the risk posed by these foodborne zoonotic parasites. Outbreaks in the arctic and subarctic regions of Canada and the United States are generally attributed to T. nativa (T2) or the T6 genotype, when genetic characterization is performed. We report the discovery of Trichinella pseudospiralis (T4), a non-encapsulated species, in a wolverine (Gulo gulo) from the Northwest Territories of Canada. This parasite has been previously reported elsewhere from both mammals and carnivorous birds, but our findings represent new host and geographic records for T. pseudospiralis. Multiplex PCR and sequencing of fragments of Cytochrome Oxidase Subunit I (COI) and D3 rDNA confirmed the identification. Phylogenetically, Canadian isolates linked with each other and others derived from Palearctic or Neotropical regions, but not elsewhere in the Nearctic (continental USA). We suggest that migratory birds might have played a role in the dispersal of this pathogen 1000's of km to northwestern Canada. Wolverines are not typically consumed by humans, and thus should not pose a direct food safety risk for trichinellosis. However, the current finding suggests that they may serve as an indicator of a broader distribution for T. pseudospiralis. Along with infection risk already recognized for T. nativa and Trichinella T6, our observations emphasize the need for further studies using molecular diagnostics and alternative methods to clarify if this is a solitary case, or if T. pseudospiralis and other freeze susceptible species of Trichinella (such as T. spiralis) circulate more broadly in wildlife in Canada, and elsewhere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajnish Sharma
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Peter Thompson
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD, 20705, USA
| | - Brett Elkin
- Environment and Natural Resources, Government of the Northwest Territories, 600, 5102-50th Avenue, Yellowknife, NT, X1A 3S8, Canada
| | - Robert Mulders
- Environment and Natural Resources, Government of the Northwest Territories, 600, 5102-50th Avenue, Yellowknife, NT, X1A 3S8, Canada
| | - Marsha Branigan
- Environment and Natural Resources, Government of the Northwest Territories, P.O. Box 2749, Shell Lake, Inuvik, NT, X0E 0T0, Canada
| | - Jodie Pongracz
- Environment and Natural Resources, Government of the Northwest Territories, P.O. Box 2749, Shell Lake, Inuvik, NT, X0E 0T0, Canada
| | - Brent Wagner
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Brad Scandrett
- Centre for Food-borne and Animal Parasitology, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Saskatoon Laboratory, 116 Veterinary Road, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 2R3, Canada
| | - Eric Hoberg
- Museum of Southwestern Biology and Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131-0001, USA
| | - Benjamin Rosenthal
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD, 20705, USA
| | - Emily Jenkins
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5B4, Canada
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Otranto D, Deplazes P. Zoonotic nematodes of wild carnivores. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2019; 9:370-383. [PMID: 31338295 PMCID: PMC6626844 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2018.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 12/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
For a long time, wildlife carnivores have been disregarded for their potential in transmitting zoonotic nematodes. However, human activities and politics (e.g., fragmentation of the environment, land use, recycling in urban settings) have consistently favoured the encroachment of urban areas upon wild environments, ultimately causing alteration of many ecosystems with changes in the composition of the wild fauna and destruction of boundaries between domestic and wild environments. Therefore, the exchange of parasites from wild to domestic carnivores and vice versa have enhanced the public health relevance of wild carnivores and their potential impact in the epidemiology of many zoonotic parasitic diseases. The risk of transmission of zoonotic nematodes from wild carnivores to humans via food, water and soil (e.g., genera Ancylostoma, Baylisascaris, Capillaria, Uncinaria, Strongyloides, Toxocara, Trichinella) or arthropod vectors (e.g., genera Dirofilaria spp., Onchocerca spp., Thelazia spp.) and the emergence, re-emergence or the decreasing trend of selected infections is herein discussed. In addition, the reasons for limited scientific information about some parasites of zoonotic concern have been examined. A correct compromise between conservation of wild carnivores and risk of introduction and spreading of parasites of public health concern is discussed in order to adequately manage the risk of zoonotic nematodes of wild carnivores in line with the 'One Health' approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Otranto
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Universita’ degli Studi di Bari, 70010, Valenzano, Italy
| | - Peter Deplazes
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Zürich, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
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Kärssin A, Häkkinen L, Niin E, Peik K, Vilem A, Jokelainen P, Lassen B. Trichinella spp. biomass has increased in raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Estonia. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:609. [PMID: 29246168 PMCID: PMC5732378 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2571-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Raccoon dogs and red foxes are well-adapted hosts for Trichinella spp. The aims of this study were to estimate Trichinella infection prevalence and biomass and to investigate which Trichinella species circulated in these indicator hosts in Estonia. METHODS From material collected for evaluating the effectiveness of oral vaccination program for rabies eradication in wildlife, samples from 113 raccoon dogs and 87 red foxes were included in this study. From each animal, 20 g of masseter muscle tissue was tested for the presence of Trichinella larvae using an artificial digestion method. The Trichinella larvae were identified to species level by multiplex polymerase chain reaction method. RESULTS The majority of tested animals were infected with Trichinella spp. The parasite species identified were T. nativa and T. britovi. The apparent infection prevalence was 57.5% in raccoon dogs and 69.0% in red foxes, which were higher than previous estimates. In addition, the larval burden had also increased in both hosts. We estimated that in 2011-2012, the Trichinella spp. biomass was more than 15 times higher in raccoon dogs and almost two times higher in red foxes than in 1992-2000 (based on mean larval burden), and almost 20 times higher in raccoon dogs and almost five times higher in red foxes than in 2000-2002 (based on median larval burden). CONCLUSIONS Raccoon dogs and red foxes are relevant reservoirs for Trichinella spp. in Estonia. The biomass of Trichinella circulating in sylvatic cycles was substantial and had increased: there is substantial infection pressure in the sylvatic cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Age Kärssin
- Veterinary and Food Laboratory, Tartu, Estonia. .,Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia.
| | | | - Enel Niin
- Veterinary and Food Board, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Katrin Peik
- Veterinary and Food Laboratory, Tartu, Estonia
| | | | - Pikka Jokelainen
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia.,University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Brian Lassen
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia.,Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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Franssen F, Swart A, van der Giessen J, Havelaar A, Takumi K. Parasite to patient: A quantitative risk model for Trichinella spp. in pork and wild boar meat. Int J Food Microbiol 2017; 241:262-275. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Revised: 09/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/23/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Maas M, van den End S, van Roon A, Mulder J, Franssen F, Dam-Deisz C, Montizaan M, van der Giessen J. First findings of Trichinella spiralis and DNA of Echinococcus multilocularis in wild raccoon dogs in the Netherlands. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2016; 5:277-279. [PMID: 27747155 PMCID: PMC5054259 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2016.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The recent invasion of the raccoon dog in the Netherlands may be associated with the risk of introduction and spread of zoonotic pathogens. The aim of this study was to assess whether Echinococcus multilocularis and Trichinella spp. infections are present in Dutch raccoon dogs. Between 2013 and 2014, nine raccoon dogs, mainly road kills, were collected for necropsies. One raccoon dog tested repeatedly positive in the qPCR for E. multilocularis. The positive raccoon dog was collected in the province of Flevoland, which is not a known endemic region for E. multilocularis. Another raccoon dog tested positive for Trichinella spiralis by the digestion of the forelimb musculature and the tongue. Trichinella spiralis has not been reported in wildlife since 1998 and thus far was not found in wild carnivores in the Netherlands. It shows that despite the small raccoon dog population that is present in the Netherlands and the limited number of raccoon dogs that were tested, the raccoon dog may play a role in the epidemiology of E. multilocularis and Trichinella spp. in the Netherlands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Maas
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Sanne van den End
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Annika van Roon
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap Mulder
- Bureau Mulder-natuurlijk, Berkenlaan 28, 3737RN Groenekan, The Netherlands
| | - Frits Franssen
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Cecile Dam-Deisz
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Margriet Montizaan
- Dutch Wildlife Health Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Joke van der Giessen
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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Franssen F, Swart A, van Knapen F, van der Giessen J. Helminth parasites in black rats (Rattus rattus) and brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) from different environments in the Netherlands. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 2016; 6:31413. [PMID: 27193418 PMCID: PMC4871897 DOI: 10.3402/iee.v6.31413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rattus norvegicus (brown rat) and Rattus rattus (black rat) are known carriers of bacteria, viruses, and parasites of zoonotic and veterinary importance. Moreover, rats may play a role in the transmission of muscle larvae of the zoonotic nematode Trichinella spiralis to farm animals. We aimed to study the intestinal and intramuscular helminths in wild rats from three different environments to assess the relevance of rats as carrier of zoonotic parasites for public health. MATERIALS AND METHODS Wild brown rats (117 individuals) and black rats (44 individuals) were captured at farms, in suburban and in rural environments in the Netherlands. Intestinal helminths were isolated and identified morphologically. Artificial digestion was used to isolate muscle larvae. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Morphological analysis of rat intestinal contents yielded six nematode species (Syphacia muris, Heterakis spumosa, Aonchotheca murissylvatici, Trichuris muris, Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, and Strongyloides sp.), three cestode species (Hymenolepis diminuta, H. nana and Hymenolepis (=Rodentolepis) fraterna), and four trematode species (Plagiorchis muris, Plagiorchis proximus, Echinostoma chloropodis, and Notocotylus imbricatus).Black rats at farms displayed the lowest intestinal helminth species variation (six species) and carried overall on average 0.93 species simultaneously. In comparison, brown rats at farms carried seven helminth species and 1.91 species simultaneously. Brown rats from suburban environments displayed the highest species variation (11 species) at 1.82 simultaneous helminth species. Absence of trematodes from rats at farms may suggest limited exchange of rats between farms and surrounding wet rural environments. We report four species of veterinary (Syphacia muris) or zoonotic relevance (Hymenolepis diminuta, Hymenolepis nana and Plagiorchis muris). We did not find Trichinella muscle larvae, consistent with long-term prevalence in Dutch wild rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frits Franssen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands;
| | - Arno Swart
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Frans van Knapen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Joke van der Giessen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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High prevalence of Trichinella spp. in sylvatic carnivore mammals of Latvia. Vet Parasitol 2016; 231:118-123. [PMID: 27091108 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Revised: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 04/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Trichinella spp. are zoonotic parasites transmitted to humans by the consumption of raw or insufficiently cooked meat of different animal species. Carnivore mammals are important reservoir hosts of these nematodes. The aims of this work were to establish the prevalence of Trichinella spp. and infection intensity in sylvatic carnivore mammals of Latvia, to identify the etiological agents at the species level and their circulation in the Latvian regions. From 2010 to 2014, muscle samples were collected from 1286 hunted animals (2 European badgers, 137 pine martens, 24 stone martens, 4 golden jackals, 394 raccoon dogs, 668 red foxes, 23 grey wolves, and 34 Eurasian lynxes). Trichinella spp. larvae were isolated by muscle digestion. Overall, 633 animals (49.2%; 95% CI 46.5%-52.0%) belonging to all the eight investigated species, tested positive for Trichinella spp. larvae. Trichinella britovi was the most common species (94.0%; 95% CI 91.7%-95.7%). Trichinella nativa was detected in 30 animals as single (6, 1.1%; 95% CI 0.4%-2.3%) or mixed infection (24, 4.4%; 95% CI 2.9%-6.4%) with T. britovi. Trichinella spiralis was detected in only three animals as mixed infection with T. britovi. The high prevalence of Trichinella spp. infection in sylvatic carnivore mammals suggests that they are good indicators for the risk assessment of Trichinella spp. in Latvia.
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Franssen F, van Andel E, Swart A, van der Giessen J. Quality Control of Trichinella Testing at the Slaughterhouse Laboratory: Evaluation of the Use of a 400-Micrometer-Mesh-Size Sieve in the Magnetic Stirrer Method. J Food Prot 2016; 79:316-20. [PMID: 26818995 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-15-386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The performance of a 400-μm-mesh-size sieve (sieve400) has not previously been compared with that of a 180-μm-mesh-size sieve (sieve180). Using pork samples spiked with 0 to 10 Trichinella muscle larvae and an artificial digestion method, sieve performance was evaluated for control of Trichinella in meat-producing animals. The use of a sieve400 resulted in 12% lower larval counts, 147% more debris, and 28% longer counting times compared with the use of a sieve180. Although no false-negative results were obtained, prolonged counting times with the sieve400 may have an impact on performance in a high-throughput environment such as a slaughterhouse laboratory. Based on our results, the sieve180 remains the sieve of choice for Trichinella control in meat in slaughterhouse laboratories, according to the European Union reference method (European Commission regulation 2075/2005). Furthermore, the results of the present study contribute to the discussion of harmonization of meat inspection requirements among countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frits Franssen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, 3720BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Arno Swart
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, 3720BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Joke van der Giessen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, 3720BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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Franssen F, Bilska-Zając E, Deksne G, Sprong H, Pozio E, Rosenthal B, Rozycki M, van der Giessen J. Genetic evidence of interspecies introgression of mitochondrial genomes between Trichinella spiralis and Trichinella britovi under natural conditions. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2015; 36:323-332. [PMID: 26458526 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2015.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2015] [Revised: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Trichinellosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Trichinella muscle larvae (ML) through ingestion of raw or undercooked meat. To date, 12 taxa are recognized in this genus, of which four are circulating in Europe (Trichinella spiralis, Trichinella nativa, Trichinella britovi and Trichinella pseudospiralis). T. spiralis and T. britovi circulate in European wildlife and occur simultaneously in the same host species. The possibility of hybrid formation between T. britovi and T. spiralis has hardly been addressed and so far, results of experimental hybridisation attempts between T. britovi and T. spiralis are inconclusive. The aim of the present study was to analyse molecular polymorphisms of single T. spiralis and T. britovi ML from natural infections based on nuclear 5S rDNA intergenic spacer region (5S rDNA-ISR) and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1 (CO1) gene sequences. Six haplotypes of the 5S rDNA intergenic spacer region (5S rDNA-ISR) and 14 of the cytochrome c oxidase 1 (CO1) gene were demonstrated in 89 individual T. britovi ML from Latvia and Poland. In contrast, only two haplotypes were observed at both 5S rDNA-ISR and CO1 of 57 individual T. spiralis ML from Polish wild boar and red foxes. Moreover, this study demonstrates hybridisation in eight individual ML between T. britovi and T. spiralis under natural conditions in four Polish wild boar and two red foxes, revealed by combining 5S rDNA-ISR and CO1 sequence information of individual Trichinella ML. To our knowledge, this is the first report of interspecies hybridisation between T. spiralis and T. britovi under field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frits Franssen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Ewa Bilska-Zając
- National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy (PIWet), Poland.
| | - Gunita Deksne
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment (BIOR), Riga, Latvia.
| | - Hein Sprong
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Benjamin Rosenthal
- Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD, USA.
| | - Mirek Rozycki
- National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy (PIWet), Poland.
| | - Joke van der Giessen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) plays a minor role in the epidemiology of the domestic cycle of Trichinella in Romania. Vet Parasitol 2015; 212:448-50. [PMID: 26185060 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.06.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Nematode worms of the genus Trichinella are zoonotic parasites with a worldwide distribution. The majority of the biomass of these nematodes circulates among wildlife, but when humans fail in the proper management of domestic animals and wildlife, Trichinella infections are transmitted from the sylvatic to the domestic environment. Such failures occur in Romania, where a high prevalence of Trichinella spiralis has been detected in domestic pigs. The aim of the present study was to provide data about the prevalence of Trichinella spp. infections in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) that are hunted in Romanian counties, in which the prevalences of Trichinella spp. infection in backyard and free-ranging pigs range from 0.17 to 2.5%, to determine the role played by this carnivore species in the transmission of the parasite to domestic cycle. A total of 121 animals from 45 hunting grounds of three counties were screened to detect Trichinella spp. larvae by the digestion method. Infections were detected in 26 (21.5%) foxes from 18 (40%) hunting grounds of the three counties (13/67 in Arad, 1/3 in Hunedoara, and 12/51 in Timiş). The mean larval density was 10.5 larvae per gram. Of the 25 successfully tested samples, the Trichinella larvae from 24 isolates were identified as T. britovi (96%), and the larvae from one isolate were identified as T. spiralis (4%). No mixed infections were recorded. The present results revealed that the red fox should be considered an important T. britovi reservoir in the sylvatic cycle; in contrast, the detection of only a single T. spiralis-positive isolate suggests that red foxes play a minor role in the epidemiology of the domestic cycle in the investigated area of western Romania.
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