Quantifying the effect of early retirement on the wealth of individuals with depression or other mental illness

Associations between retirement, social security policies and the health of older people: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

As people age, they are more likely to experience several health conditions which are circumstances that arise throughout life that can interfere with an individual's ability to work, leading them to demand the social security system. This research aims to systematically review and synthesize studies related to health conditions in the aging process with social security policy reforms.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed across Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, Pubmed, CINAHL, ASSIA (Proquest) and APA PsycNet from 1979 to 2022. Methods are outlined in a published protocol registered a priori on PROSPERO (CRD42021225820). Eligible studies include original empirical articles published in English, Spanish, French and Portuguese, using the search terms "aging" and "social security". Identified outcomes were organized into categories and a meta-ethnography was completed following the phases proposed by Noblit and Hare and the eMERGe meta-ethnography reporting guidance.

RESULTS

There were 17 eligible studies from 4 continents with 10 cross-sectional, 1 both cross-sectional and longitudinal and 5 longitudinal data analysis. These assessed the relationship of health conditions that occur in the aging process related to social security policies, in particular, to retirement. The categories included (i) health as a way to promote an active working life for the elderly; (ii) health as an indicator for reforms in social security policies; (iii) retirement planning as a strategic element for coping with post-retirement life; and (iv) the relationship between social security policies and psychological health.

CONCLUSIONS

This review showed that health and retirement defined in social security policies are related and have an impact on people's lives, especially in the decision to leave the labor market. Therefore, measures to assess the possible consequences of this relationship when promoting reforms on social security policies should be encouraged.

Economic impact of informal caring for a person with arthritis in Australia from 2015 to 2030: a microsimulation approach using national survey data

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the economic burden of informal caregivers not in the labour force (NILF) due to caring for a person with arthritis in Australia, with projections of these costs from 2015 to 2030.

DESIGN

Static microsimulation modelling using national survey data.

SETTING

Australia nationwide survey.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants include respondents to the Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers who are informal carers of a person who has arthritis as their main chronic condition and non-carers.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Estimating the economic impact and national aggregated costs of informal carers NILF to care for a person with arthritis and projecting these costs from 2015 to 2030 in 5-year intervals.

RESULTS

On a per-person basis, when adjusted for age, sex and highest education attained, the difference in average weekly total income between informal carers and non-carers employed in the labour force is $A1051 (95% CI: $A927 to $A1204) in 2015 and projected to increase by up to 22% by 2030. When aggregated, the total national annual loss of income to informal carers NILF is estimated at $A388.2 million (95% CI: $A324.3 to $A461.9 million) in 2015, increasing to $A576.9 million (95% CI: $A489.2 to $A681.8 million) by 2030. The national annual tax revenue lost to the government of the informal carers NILF is estimated at $A99 million (95% CI: $A77.9 to $A126.4 million) in 2015 and is projected to increase 49% by 2030.

CONCLUSION

Informal carers NILF are economically worse off than employed non-carers, and the aggregated national annual costs are substantial. The future economic impact of informal carers NILF to care for a person with arthritis in Australia is projected to increase, with the estimated differences in income between informal carers and employed non-carers increasing by 22% from 2015 to 2030.

Microsimulation Models on Mental Health: A Critical Review of the Literature

OBJECTIVES

To retrieve and synthesize the literature on existing mental health-specific microsimulation models or generic microsimulation models used to examine mental health, and to critically appraise them.

METHODS

All studies on microsimulation and mental health published in English in MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, and EconLit between January 1, 2010, and September 30, 2022, were considered. Snowballing, Google searches, and searches on specific journal websites were also undertaken. Data extraction was done on all studies retrieved and the reporting quality of each model was assessed using the Quality Assessment Reporting for Microsimulation Models checklist, a checklist developed by the research team. A narrative synthesis approach was used to synthesize the evidence.

RESULTS

Among 227 potential hits, 19 studies were found to be relevant. Some studies covered existing economic-demographic models, which included a component on mental health and were used to answer mental-health-related research questions. Other studies were focused solely on mental health and included models that were developed to examine the impact of specific policies or interventions on specific mental disorders or both. Most models examined were of medium quality. The main limitations included the use of model inputs based on self-reported and/or cross-sectional data, small and/or nonrepresentative samples and simplifying assumptions, and lack of model validation.

CONCLUSIONS

This review found few high-quality microsimulation models on mental health. Microsimulation models developed specifically to examine mental health are important to guide healthcare delivery and service planning. Future research should focus on developing high-quality mental health-specific microsimulation models with wide applicability and multiple functionalities.

[Impact économique de l'incapacité professionnelle au cours des lombalgies disco-vertébrales communes chroniques dans la perspective du patient]

OBJECTIVES

Low back pain (LBP) is one of the main expenditure items for health systems. Data on the economic impact of LBP are uncommon from the patient perspective. The aim of this study was to estimate the economic impact of work disability related to chronic LBP from the patient perspective.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional analysis from patients aged over 17 years suffering from non-specific LBP for at least 3 months. Systematic medical, social and economic assessments were collected: pain duration and intensity; functional disability with the Quebec Back Pain Disability Scale (0-100); quality of life with the Dallas Pain Questionnaire; job category; employment status; duration of work disability due to LBP, and income. Factors associated with loss of income were identified by multivariable logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

We included 244 workers (mean age 43 ± 9 years; 36% women); 199 patients had work disability, including 196 who were on sick leave, 106 due to job injury. Three were unemployed due to layoff for incapacity. The mean loss of income for patients with work disability was 14% [SD 24, range -100 to 70] and was significantly less for patients on sick leave due to job injury than on sick leave not related to job injury (p < 0.0001). On multivariable analysis, the probability of loss of income with LBP was about 50% less for overseers and senior managers than workers or employees (odds ratio 0.48 [95% confidence interval 0.23-0.99]).

CONCLUSION

Work disability due to LBP resulted in loss of income in our study. The loss of income depended on the type of social protection and job category. It was reduced for patients on sick leave related to work injury and for overseers and senior managers.

Individual and national financial impacts of informal caring for people with mental illness in Australia, projected to 2030

BACKGROUND

Mental illness has a significant impact not only on patients, but also on their carers' capacity to work.

AIMS

To estimate the costs associated with lost labour force participation due to the provision of informal care for people with mental illness in Australia, such as income loss for carers and lost tax revenue and increased welfare payments for government, from 2015 to 2030.

METHOD

The output data of a microsimulation model Care&WorkMOD were analysed to project the financial costs of informal care for people with mental illness, from 2015 to 2030. Care&WorkMOD is a population-representative microsimulation model of the Australian population aged between 15 and 64 years, built using the Australian Bureau of Statistics Surveys of Disability, Ageing and Carers data and the data from other population-representative microsimulation models.

RESULTS

The total annual national loss of income for all carers due to caring for someone with mental illness was projected to rise from AU$451 million (£219.6 million) in 2015 to AU$645 million (£314 million) in 2030 in real terms. For the government, the total annual lost tax revenue was projected to rise from AU$121 million (£58.9 million) in 2015 to AU$170 million (£82.8 million) in 2030 and welfare payments to increase from AU$170 million (£82.8 million) to AU$220 million (£107 million) in 2030.

CONCLUSIONS

The costs associated with lost labour force participation due to the provision of informal care for people with mental illness are projected to increase for both carers and government, with a widening income gap between informal carers and employed non-carers, putting carers at risk of increased inequality.

Informal caring for back pain: overlooked costs of back pain and projections to 2030

This study models the economic costs of informal caring for people with back pain, using a microsimulation model, Care&WorkMOD, from 2015 to 2030. Care&WorkMOD was based on 3 national Australian Surveys of Disability, Ageing and Carers (2003, 2009, 2012) data sets for individuals aged 15 to 64 years. Estimated national income loss due to caring for people with back pain was AU$258 million in 2015, increasing to $398 million in 2030 (54% increase). Lost income tax revenue to the Australian government due to informal care of people with back pain was estimated to be AU$78 million in 2015, increasing to AU$118 million in 2030 (50% increase), and additional welfare payments were estimated to rise from $132 million in 2015 to AU$180 in 2030 (36% increase). Larger growth in lost income, compared with the increase in welfare payments, means that there would be an increasing income gap between those out of the labour force providing informal care and noncarers who are in the labour force, leading to increased inequality. Informal carers are defined as providers of informal, unpaid assistance to someone with a health condition, for at least 6 months. Informal carers of people with back pain who are out of the labour force incur substantial economic costs. Furthermore, back pain is a large economic burden on national governments. Policies addressing back pain prevention and treatment, and supporting carers, may offset government welfare expenditure, while improving the socioeconomic well-being of carers and patients.

Depressive Symptomatology in Early Retirees Associated With Reason for Retirement-Results From the Population-Based LIFE-Adult-Study

BACKGROUND

Transition from employment to retirement is regarded a crucial event. However, there is mixed evidence on associations between retirement and mental health, especially regarding early retirement. In Germany, cases of early retirement due to ill health-particularly, mental ill health-are increasing. Therefore, we investigated the association between early retirement and depressive symptoms, including information on different types of early retirement.

METHODS

We analyzed data from 4,808 participants of the population-based LIFE-Adult-Study (age: 40-65 years, 654 retired, 4,154 employed), controlling for sociodemographic information, social network, pre-existing health conditions, and duration of retirement. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Regression analysis using entropy balancing was applied to achieve covariate balance between retired and employed subjects.

RESULTS

We found no overall-differences in depressive symptoms between employed and retired persons (men: b = -.52; p = 0.431; women: b = .05; p = .950). When looking at different types of early retirement, ill-health retirement was linked to increased depressive symptoms in women (b = 4.68, 95% CI = 1.71; 7.65), while voluntary retirement was associated with reduced depressive symptoms in men (b= -1.83, 95% CI = -3.22; -.43) even after controlling for covariates. For women, statutory retirement was linked to lower depressive symptomatology (b = -2.00, 95% CI = -3.99; -.02).

CONCLUSION

Depressive symptomatology among early retirees depends on reason for retirement: For women, ill-health retirement is linked to higher levels of depressive symptoms. Women who retire early due to ill-health constitute a risk group for depressive symptoms that needs specific attention in the health care and social security system.

Intellectual disability and autism: socioeconomic impacts of informal caring, projected to 2030

BACKGROUND

Intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) influence the interactions of a person with their environment and generate economic and socioeconomic costs for the person, their family and society.

AIMS

To estimate costs of lost workforce participation due to informal caring for people with intellectual disability or autism spectrum disorders by estimating lost income to individuals, lost taxation payments to federal government and increased welfare payments.

METHOD

We used a microsimulation model based on the Australian Bureau of Statistics' Surveys of Disability, Ageing and Carers (population surveys of people aged 15-64), and projected costs of caring from 2015 in 5-year intervals to 2030.

RESULTS

The model estimated that informal carers of people with intellectual disability and/or ASD in Australia had aggregated lost income of AU$310 million, lost taxation of AU$100 million and increased welfare payments of AU$204 million in 2015. These are projected to increase to AU$432 million, AU$129 million and AU$254 million for income, taxation, and welfare respectively by 2030. The income gap of carers for people with intellectual disability and/or ASD is estimated to increase by 2030, meaning more financial stress for carers.

CONCLUSIONS

Informal carers of people with intellectual disability and/or ASD experience significant loss of income, leading to increased welfare payments and reduced taxation revenue for governments; these are all projected to increase. Strategic policies supporting informal carers wishing to return to work could improve the financial and psychological impact of having a family member with intellectual disability and/or ASD.

DECLARATION OF INTEREST

None.

Economic costs of informal care for people with chronic diseases in the community: Lost income, extra welfare payments, and reduced taxes in Australia in 2015-2030

We estimated the economic costs of informal care in the community from 2015 to 2030, using an Australian microsimulation model, Care&WorkMOD. The model was based on data from three Surveys of Disability, Ageing, and Carers (SDACs) for the Australian population aged 15-64 years old. Estimated national income lost was AU$3.58 billion in 2015, increasing to $5.33 billion in 2030 (49% increase). Lost tax payments were estimated at AU$0.99 billion in 2015, increasing to AU$1.44 billion in 2030 (45% increase), and additional welfare payments were expected to rise from $1.45 billion in 2015 to AU$1.94 in 2030 (34% increase). There are substantial economic costs both to informal carers and the government due to carers being out of the labour-force to provide informal care for people with chronic diseases. Health and social policies supporting carers to remain in the labour force may allow governments to make substantial savings, while improving the economic situation of carers.

Idoso, depressão e aposentadoria: Uma revisão sistemática da literatura

A aposentadoria refere-se a um processo de mudanças que podem ser entendidas de maneira bastante diferente por aqueles que se aposentam. Neste estudo, levantou-se a hipótese de que a aposentadoria se refere a um processo gradativo de perdas que, no envelhecimento, se relaciona diretamente com a possibilidade do desencadeamento da depressão. O objetivo deste estudo foi verificar quais reflexões e resultados são apresentados em estudos nacionais e internacionais que discutem o processo de envelhecer, a aposentadoria e a depressão na última década. Para tanto, foi realizada uma revisão sistemática da literatura com as palavras-chave depressão/depression, idosos/seniors e aposentadoria/retirement, em bases de dados eletrônicas, entre 2009 e 2018. Foram analisados 13 artigos que, organizados em quatro categorias temáticas demonstraram que dificilmente a aposentadoria é considerada como um fator de risco à saúde em todas as fases da vida e como agente causador de depressão em idosos. Assim, conclui-se a necessidade da problematização dessas constatações, visto que o fenômeno da aposentadoria precisa ser pensado face às diversas condições que podem estar sobrepostas na experiência do idoso que se aposenta.

Psychological distress increases the risk of falling into poverty amongst older Australians: the overlooked costs-of-illness

Background

This paper aimed to identify whether high psychological distress is associated with an increased risk of income and multidimensional poverty amongst older adults in Australia.

Methods

We undertook longitudinal analysis of the nationally representative Household Income and Labour Dynamics in Australian (HILDA) survey using modified Poisson regression models to estimate the relative risk of falling into income poverty and multidimensional poverty between 2010 and 2012 for males and females, adjusting for age, employment status, place of residence, marital status and housing tenure; and Population Attributable Risk methodology to estimate the proportion of poverty directly attributable to psychological distress, measured by the Kessler 10 scale.

Results

For males, having high psychological distress increased the risk of falling into income poverty by 1.68 (95% CI: 1.02 to 2.75) and the risk of falling into multidimensional poverty by 3.40 (95% CI: 1.91 to 6.04). For females, there was no significant difference in the risk of falling into income poverty between those with high and low psychological distress (p = 0.1008), however having high psychological distress increased the risk of falling into multidimensional poverty by 2.15 (95% CI: 1.30 to 3.55). Between 2009 and 2012, 8.0% of income poverty cases for people aged 65 and over (95% CI: 7.8% to 8.4%), and 19.5% of multidimensional poverty cases for people aged 65 and over (95% CI: 19.2% to 19.9%) can be attributed to high psychological distress.

Conclusions

The elevated risk of falling into income and multidimensional poverty has been an overlooked cost of poor mental health.

Early Retirement: A Meta-Analysis of Its Antecedent and Subsequent Correlates

Early or voluntary retirement (ER) can be defined as the full exit from an organizational job or career path of long duration, decided by individuals of a certain age at the mid or late career before mandatory retirement age, with the aim of reducing their attachment to work and closing a process of gradual psychological disengagement from working life. Given the swinging movements that characterize employment policies, the potential effects of ER-both for individuals and society-are still controversial. This meta-analysis examined the relationships between ER and its antecedent and subsequent correlates. Our review of the literature was generated with 151 empirical studies, containing a total number of 706,937 participants, with a wide range of sample sizes (from N = 27 to N = 127,384 participants) and 380 independent effect sizes (ESs), which included 171 independent samples. A negligible ES value for antecedent correlates of early retirement (family pull, job stress, job satisfaction, and income) was obtained (which ranged from r = -0.13 to 0.19), while a fair ES was obtained for workplace timing for retirement, organizational pressures, financial security, and poor physical and mental health, (ranging from r = 0.28 to 0.25). Regarding ER subsequent correlates, poor ESs were obtained, ranging from r = 0.08 to 0.18 for the relationships with subsequent correlates, and fair ESs only for social engagement (r = -0.25). Examination of the potential moderator variables has been conducted. Only a reduced percentage of variability of primary studies has been explained by moderators. Although potential moderator factors were examined, there are several unknown or not measurable factors which contribute to ER and about which there are very little data available. The discussion is aimed to offer theoretical and empirical implications suggestion in order to improve employee's well-being.

It can work: Open employment for people with experience of mental illness

BACKGROUND

Previous research has tended to focus on the barriers to employment for people with mental illness and the extra support they may need. This research contributes to the knowledge base pertaining to this population by looking at successful employment relationships in New Zealand.

OBJECTIVE

To describe factors enabling and/or sustaining the open employment of people with experience of mental illness.

METHOD

Fifteen pairs of employers and employees were interviewed individually but consecutively (using a semi-structured interview schedule) about their perceptions of the critical factors that enabled and sustained the employee's employment. Employee participants were recruited by advertisement, with employers approached through their employees. Transcripts were analysed using a thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Themes raised in the interviews included the meaning of work, disclosure of mental illness, the benefits of working, special arrangements or accommodations, the work environment and key things employers and employees do to sustain successful employment.

CONCLUSION

Four critical success factors were identified relating to disclosure, the employment relationship, freedom from discrimination and workplace flexibility.

Does long-term experience of nonstandard employment increase the incidence of depression in the elderly?

Objectives:

Our prospective study aimed to elucidate the effect of long-term experience of nonstandard employment status on the incidence of depression in elderly population using the Korean Longitudinal Study of Ageing (KLoSA) study.

Methods:

This study used the first- to fourth-wave cohorts of KLoSA. After the exclusion of the unemployed and participants who experienced a change in employment status during the follow-up periods, we analyzed a total of 1,817 participants. Employment contracts were assessed by self-reported questions:standard or nonstandard employment. The short form of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) served as the outcome measure. Hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using Cox proportional hazards models to evaluate the association between standard/nonstandard employees and development of depression.

Results:

The mean age of the participants was 53.90 (±7.21) years. We observed that nonstandard employment significantly increased the risk of depression. Compared with standard employees, nonstandard employees had a 1.5-fold elevated risk for depression after adjusting for age, gender, CES-D score at baseline, household income, occupation category, current marital status, number of living siblings, perceived health status, and chronic diseases [HR=1.461, 95% CI= (1.184, 1.805) ]. Moreover, regardless of other individual characteristics, the elevated risk of depression was observed among all kinds of nonstandard workers, such as temporary and day workers, full-time and part-time workers, and directly employed and dispatched labor.

Conclusions:

The 6-year follow-up study revealed that long-term experience of nonstandard employment status increased the risk of depression in elderly population in Korea.

Depression prevention, labour force participation and income of older working aged Australians: A microsimulation economic analysis

OBJECTIVE

Depression has economic consequences not only for the health system, but also for individuals and society. This study aims to quantify the potential economic impact of five-yearly screening for sub-syndromal depression in general practice among Australians aged 45-64 years, followed by a group-based psychological intervention to prevent progression to depression.

METHOD

We used an epidemiological simulation model to estimate reductions in prevalence of depression, and a microsimulation model, Health&WealthMOD2030, to estimate the impact on labour force participation, personal income, savings, taxation revenue and welfare expenditure.

RESULTS

Group therapy is estimated to prevent around 5,200 prevalent cases of depression (2.2%) and add about 520 people to the labour force. Private incomes are projected to increase by $19 million per year, tax revenues by $2.4 million, and transfer payments are reduced by $2.6 million.

CONCLUSION

Group-based psychological intervention to prevent depression could result in considerable economic benefits in addition to its clinical effects.

Back problems, comorbidities, and their association with wealth

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

Studies assessing the economic burden of back problems have given little consideration to the presence of comorbidities.

PURPOSE

To assess the difference in the value of wealth held by Australians who have back problems and varying numbers of chronic comorbidities.

STUDY DESIGN

A cross-sectional study.

PATIENT SAMPLE

Individuals aged 45 to 64 years in 2009: 4,388 with no chronic health conditions, 1,405 with back problems, and 3,018 with other health conditions.

OUTCOME MEASURE

Total wealth (cash, shares, superannuation, investment property, and owner occupied home).

METHODS

Using a microsimulation model (Health&WealthMOD), logistic regression models were used to assess the odds of having any wealth. Linear regression models were used to assess the difference in the value of this wealth.

RESULTS

Those with back problems and two comorbidities had 0.16 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.06-0.42) times the odds and those with back problems and three or more comorbidities had 0.20 (95% CI: 0.11-0.38) times the odds of having accumulated some wealth than those with no chronic health conditions. Those with back problems and three or more comorbidities had a median value of total wealth of around $150,000, whereas those with back problems only and back problems and one comorbidity had a median value of total wealth of around $250,500. There was no significant difference in the amount of wealth accumulated by those with back problems and at least one comorbidity and those with other health conditions and the same number of comorbidities. However, those with only one health condition (excluding back problems) had 65% more wealth than those with back problems only (95% CI: 5.1-161.2).

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the importance of considering multiple morbidities when discussing the relationship between back problems and economic circumstances.

Multiple chronic health conditions and their link with wealth assets

BACKGROUND

There has been little research on the economic status of those with multiple health conditions, particularly on the relationship between multiple health conditions and wealth. This paper will assess the difference in the value and type of wealth assets held by Australians who have multiple chronic health conditions.

METHODS

Using Health&WealthMOD, a microsimulation model of the 45-64-year-old Australian population in 2009, a counterfactual analysis was undertaken. The actual proportion of people with different numbers of chronic health conditions with any wealth, and the value of this wealth was estimated. This was compared with the counterfactual values had the individuals had no chronic health conditions.

RESULTS

There was no change in the proportion of people with one health condition who actually had any wealth, compared to the counterfactual proportion had they had no chronic health conditions. Ninety-four percent of those with four or more health conditions had some accumulated wealth; however, under the counterfactual, 100% would have had some accumulated wealth. There was little change in the value of non-income-producing assets under the counterfactual, regardless of number of health conditions. Those with four or more chronic health conditions had a mean value of $17 000 in income-producing assets; under the counterfactual, the average would have been $78 000.

CONCLUSION

This study has highlighted the variation in the value of wealth according to number of chronic health conditions, and hence the importance of considering multiple morbidities when discussing the relationship between health and wealth.

Indirect economic impacts of comorbidities on people with heart disease

BACKGROUND

 Few studies have assessed the effect of multiple health conditions among patients with heart disease, particularly the economic implications of having multiple conditions.

METHODS AND RESULTS

 This study used a microsimulation model, Health&WealthMOD, to assess the effect of comorbidities on the labor force participation of 45-64-year-old Australians with heart disease, and the indirect economic costs to these individuals and government. For most comorbid conditions, there is a significant increase in the chance of an individual being out of the labor force, relative to those with heart disease alone. For example, individuals with heart disease and arthritis have more than 6-fold the odds of being out of the labor force relative to those with heart disease alone (OR 6.64, 95% CI: 2.46-17.95). People with heart disease and ≥1 comorbidities also receive a significantly lower income, pay less in taxation and receive more in government transfer payments than those with heart disease alone.

CONCLUSIONS

 It is important to consider whether an individual with heart disease also has other health conditions, as individuals with comorbidities have inferior financial situations and are a greater burden on government finances than those with only heart disease.  (Circ J 2014; 78: 644-648).

Multiple chronic health conditions and their link with labour force participation and economic status

AIMS

To assess the labour force participation and quantify the economic status of older Australian workers with multiple health conditions.

BACKGROUND

Many older people suffer from multiple health conditions. While multiple morbidities have been highlighted as an important research topic, there has been limited research in this area to date, particularly on the economic status of those with multiple morbidities.

METHODS

Cross sectional analysis of Health&WealthMOD, a microsimulation model of Australians aged 45 to 64 years.

RESULTS

People with one chronic health condition had 0.59 times the odds of being employed compared to those with no condition (OR 0.59, 95% CI: 0.49, 0.71), and those with four or more conditions had 0.14 times the odds of being employed compared to those with no condition (OR 0.14, 95% CI: 0.11, 0.18). People with one condition received a weekly income 32% lower than those with no health condition, paid 49 % less tax, and received 37% more in government transfer payments; those with four or more conditions received a weekly income 94% lower, paid 97% less in tax and received over 2,000% more in government transfer payments per week than those with no condition.

CONCLUSION

While having a chronic health condition is associated with lower labour force participation and poorer economic status, having multiple conditions compounds the affect - with these people being far less likely to be employed and having drastically lower incomes.

The indirect economic impacts of co-morbidities on people with depression

It is known that people with depression often have other co-morbid conditions; however this is rarely acknowledged in studies that access the economic impacts of depression. This paper aims to quantify the association between co-morbid health conditions and labour force status and economic circumstances of people with depression. This study undertakes cross-sectional analysis using a dataset that is representative of the 45-64 year old Australian population with depression. The probability of being out of the labour force increases with increasing number of co-morbidities, and the amount of weekly income received by people with depression decreased with increasing numbers of co-morbidities. Those with depression and three or more co-morbidities were 4.31 times more likely to be out of the labour force (95% CI: 1.74-10.68), and received a weekly private income 88% lower (95% CI: -94%, -75%) than people with depression alone. It is important to consider the co-morbid conditions an individual has when assessing the impact of depression on labour force participation and economic circumstances.

Effect of domain-specific life satisfaction on depressive symptoms in late adulthood and old age: results of a cross-sectional descriptive survey

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of domain-specific life satisfaction on the risk of depressive symptoms in late adulthood and old age.

METHODS

A cross-sectional descriptive survey was conducted using stratified data from the Korean Longitudinal Study of Aging (KLoSA). The respondents completed the Korean version CES-D and domain-specific life satisfaction.

RESULTS

In both groups, satisfaction with health and economic status were significant predictors of depressive symptoms. In the old age group, depressive symptoms were also predicted by satisfaction with the relationships with one's spouse and with one's children.

CONCLUSION

Life satisfaction was a crucial predictive factor for depressive symptoms in late adulthood and old age.

Depression- and anxiety-related sick leave and the risk of permanent disability and mortality in the working population in Germany: a cohort study

BACKGROUND

Anxiety and depression are the most common psychiatric disorders and are the cause of a large and increasing amount of sick-leave in most developed countries. They are also implicated as an increasing mortality risk in community surveys. In this study we addressed, whether sick leave due to anxiety, depression or comorbid anxiety and depression was associated with increased risk of retirement due to permanent disability and increased mortality in a cohort of German workers.

METHODS

128,001 German workers with statutory health insurance were followed for a mean of 6.4 years. We examined the associations between 1) depression/anxiety-related sick leave managed on an outpatient basis and 2) anxiety/depression-related psychiatric inpatient treatment, and later permanent disability/mortality using Cox proportional hazard regression models (stratified by sex and disorder) adjusted for age, education and job code classification.

RESULTS

Outpatient-managed depression/anxiety-related sick leave was significantly associated with higher permanent disability (hazard ratio (95% confidence interval)) 1.48 (1.30, 1.69) for depression, 1.25 (1.07, 1.45) for anxiety, 1.91 (1.56, 2.35) for both). Among outpatients, comorbidly ill men (2.59 (1.97,3.41)) were more likely to retire early than women (1.42 (1.04,1.93)). Retirement rates were higher for depressive and comorbidly ill patients who needed inpatient treatment (depression 3.13 (2,51, 3,92), both 3.54 (2.80, 4.48)). Inpatient-treated depression was also associated with elevated mortality (2.50 (1.80, 3.48)). Anxiety (0.53 (0.38, 0.73)) and female outpatients with depression (0.61 (0.38, 0.97)) had reduced mortality compared to controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Depression/anxiety diagnoses increase the risk of early retirement; comorbidity and severity further increase that risk, depression more strikingly than anxiety. Sickness-absence diagnoses of anxiety/depression identified a population at high risk of retiring early due to ill health, suggesting a target group for the development of interventions.

The relationship between employment and social participation among Australians with a disabling chronic health condition: a cross-sectional analysis

OBJECTIVES

Social interaction may be particularly important for people with chronic health conditions, due to the numerous benefits to an individual's health. This paper aims to determine if labour force participation is a factor that influences individuals with chronic health conditions partaking in social or cultural events.

DESIGN AND SETTING

The study undertakes a cross-sectional analysis of the 2009 Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers, a nationally representative survey of the Australian population.

PARTICIPANTS

33 376 records of persons aged 25-64years.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Participation in social and community activities.

RESULTS

It was found that after controlling for age, sex, level of highest education, income unit type and severity of disability, people with a chronic health condition that were in the labour force were more than twice as likely to be participating in social or community events (OR 2.54, 95% CI 1.95 to 3.29, p<0.0001), and in cultural events (OR 2.57, 95% CI 2.21 to 3.00, p<0.0001) as their counterparts who were out of the labour force. The results were then repeated, with the addition of income as a confounding variable. People with a chronic health condition that were in the labour force were still a little more than twice as likely to be participating in social or community events (OR 2.25, 95% CI 1.69 to 3.00, p<0.0001), and to be participating in cultural events (OR 2.08, 95% CI 1.76 to 2.45, p<0.0001) as their counterparts who were out of the labour force.

CONCLUSIONS

Participating in the labour force may be an important driver of social participation among those with chronic health conditions, independent of income. People with chronic health conditions who are not in the labour force and do not participate in social or cultural activities may have a compounding disadvantage.

Returning to paid employment after stroke: the Psychosocial Outcomes In StrokE (POISE) cohort study

OBJECTIVES

To determine which early modifiable factors are associated with younger stroke survivors' ability to return to paid work in a cohort study with 12-months of follow-up conducted in 20 stroke units in the Stroke Services NSW clinical network.

PARTICIPANTS

Were aged >17 and <65 years, recent (within 28 days) stroke, able to speak English sufficiently to respond to study questions, and able to provide written informed consent. Participants with language or cognitive impairment were eligible to participate if their proxy provided consent and completed assessments on the participants' behalf. The main outcome measure was return to paid work during the 12 months following stroke.

RESULTS

Of 441 consented participants (average age 52 years, 68% male, 83% with ischemic stroke), 218 were in paid full-time and 53 in paid part-time work immediately before their stroke, of whom 202 (75%) returned to paid part- or full-time work within 12 months. Being male, female without a prior activity restricting illness, younger, independent in activities of daily living (ADL) at 28 days after stroke, and having private health insurance was associated with return to paid work, following adjustment for other illnesses and a history of depression before stroke (C statistic 0·81). Work stress and post stroke depression showed no such independent association.

CONCLUSIONS

Given that independence in ADL is the strongest predictor of return to paid work within 12 months of stroke, these data reinforce the importance of reducing stroke-related disability and increasing independence for younger stroke survivors.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ANZCTRN 12608000459325.

The impact of gender on early ill-health retirement in people with heart disease and depression

OBJECTIVE

Depression and heart disease are major causes of early ill-health retirement. The effect of comorbid depression on the award of ill-health retirement in those with heart disease is unclear, however, and may differ by gender. Given the deleterious effects of ill-health retirement, identifying at-risk groups is important for guiding targeted interventions.

METHOD

We retrospectively analysed baseline data of 20,655 participants from the 45 and Up Study (New South Wales, Australia), who had fully retired between the ages of 45 and 64. We examined the associations of depression and heart disease with ill-health retirement and then adjusted for the presence of common confounders. We then restricted the sample to the 1165 individuals with heart disease prior to retirement, to determine the impact of comorbid depression on IHR and analysed whether there was a differential impact by gender.

RESULTS

In the complete sample, 3836 out of 20,655 (18.6%) of the participants retired early due to ill health. Prior heart disease and depression were both independently and strongly associated with ill-health retirement. Those who retired due to ill health were also more likely to be men, less educated, report greater physical disability and were younger at retirement. Among the 1165 for whom heart disease predated any form of retirement, 40% retired due to ill health. Comorbid depression prior to ill-health retirement was strongly associated with an increased risk of this IHR in women (odds ratio = 2.85; 95% confidence interval = 1.20-6.77, p = 0.01), but not in men (interaction term, p = 0.045).

CONCLUSIONS

Ill-health retirement is common in those with heart disease. Women appear to be particularly susceptible to the effects of comorbid depression. Given the policy emphasis on reducing the number of people leaving the workforce early, women with early heart disease may represent a particular group in whom interventions designed to detect and treat comorbid depression should be targeted.

How depression and other mental health problems can affect future living standards of those out of the labour force

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the extent to which those who exit the workforce early due to mental health problems have less savings by the time they reach retirement age.

METHODS

Using Health & WealthMOD--a microsimulation model of Australians aged 45-64 years that predicts accumulated savings at age 65, regression models were used to analyse the differences between the projected savings and the retirement incomes of people at age 65 for those currently working with no chronic condition, and people not in the labour force due to mental health problems.

RESULTS

Females who retire early due to depression have a median value of total savings by the time they are 65 of $300. For those with other mental health problems the median figure was $0. This is far lower than the median value of $227,900 for females with no chronic condition who remained employed full-time. Males showed similar differences. Both males and females who were out of the labour force due to depression or other mental health problems had at least 97% (95% CI: -99.9% to -68.7%) less savings and retirement income by age 65 that those who remained employed full-time.

CONCLUSIONS

People who retire from the labour force early due to mental health problems will face long term financial disadvantage compared to people who are able to remain in employment.

The personal and national costs of mental health conditions: impacts on income, taxes, government support payments due to lost labour force participation

BACKGROUND

Mental health conditions have the ability to interrupt an individual's ability to participate in the labour force, and this can have considerable follow on impacts to both the individual and the state.

METHOD

Cross-sectional analysis of the base population of Health&WealthMOD, a microsimulation model built on data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics' Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers and STINMOD, an income and savings microsimulation model was used to quantify the personal cost of lost income and the cost to the state from lost income taxation, increased benefits payments and lost GDP as a result of early retirement due to mental health conditions in Australians aged 45-64 in 2009.

RESULTS

Individuals aged 45 to 64 years who have retired early due to depression personally have 73% lower income then their full time employed counterparts and those retired early due to other mental health conditions have 78% lower incomes. The national aggregate cost to government due to early retirement from these conditions equated to $278 million (£152.9 million) in lost income taxation revenue, $407 million (£223.9 million) in additional transfer payments and around $1.7 billion in GDP in 2009 alone.

CONCLUSIONS

The costs of mental health conditions to the individuals and the state are considerable. While individuals has to bear the economic costs of lost income in addition to the burden of the conditions itself, the impact on the state is loss of productivity from reduced workforce participation, lost income taxation revenue, and increased government support payments--in addition to direct health care costs.