Targeted delivery of oncogene-selective antisense oligonucleotides in neuroectodermal tumors: therapeutic implications

Cellular Senescence: Aging, Cancer, and Injury

Cellular senescence is a permanent state of cell cycle arrest that occurs in proliferating cells subjected to different stresses. Senescence is, therefore, a cellular defense mechanism that prevents the cells to acquire an unnecessary damage. The senescent state is accompanied by a failure to re-enter the cell cycle in response to mitogenic stimuli, an enhanced secretory phenotype and resistance to cell death. Senescence takes place in several tissues during different physiological and pathological processes such as tissue remodeling, injury, cancer, and aging. Although senescence is one of the causative processes of aging and it is responsible of aging-related disorders, senescent cells can also play a positive role. In embryogenesis and tissue remodeling, senescent cells are required for the proper development of the embryo and tissue repair. In cancer, senescence works as a potent barrier to prevent tumorigenesis. Therefore, the identification and characterization of key features of senescence, the induction of senescence in cancer cells, or the elimination of senescent cells by pharmacological interventions in aging tissues is gaining consideration in several fields of research. Here, we describe the known key features of senescence, the cell-autonomous, and noncell-autonomous regulators of senescence, and we attempt to discuss the functional role of this fundamental process in different contexts in light of the development of novel therapeutic targets.

Aging tumour cells to cure cancer: “pro-senescence” therapy for cancer

Robust scientific evidence demonstrates that senescence induction in cancer works as a potent weapon to eradicate tumorigenesis. Therapies that enhance senescence not only promote a stable cell growth arrest but also work as a strong stimulus for the activation of the antitumour immune response. However, recent advances suggest that if senescent tumour cells are not cleared from the tumours, they may promote tumour progression and metastasis. In this article, we focus on concepts that are relevant to a pro-senescence therapeutic approach, including caveats, and we propose therapeutic strategies that involve the combined use of pro-senescence therapies with immunotherapies to promote the clearance of senescent tumour cells. In our opinion, these approaches may avoid potential negative effects of pro-senescence therapies and may also enhance the efficacy of currently available immunotherapies.

Current Chemotherapy and Potential New Targets in Uterine Leiomyosarcoma

A variety of chemotherapeutic agents have been used for treating recurrent or advanced stage uterine leiomyosarcoma (ULMS). The response rates of these current agents are disappointing, with partial response rates varying from 0% to 33%, and complete response rates varying from 0% to 8%. Recent studies have documented many molecular changes in ULMSs. Prominent amongst these are gains of growth factors C-MYC, Bcl-2, K-ras, and Ki-67, and losses in tumor suppressors p16, p53, Rb1, ING2 and D14S267. Various techniques that have been used to target these molecules are presented. Targeting specific therapies at these underlying molecular changes could potentially yield better response rates with fewer side effects.

SGF29 and Sry pathway in hepatocarcinogenesis

Deregulated c-Myc expression is a hallmark of many human cancers. We have recently identified a role of mammalian homolog of yeast SPT-ADA-GCN5-acetyltransferas (SAGA) complex component, SAGA-associated factor 29 (SGF29), in regulating the c-Myc overexpression. Here, we discuss the molecular nature of SFG29 in SPT3-TAF9-GCN5-acetyltransferase complex, a counterpart of yeast SAGA complex, and the mechanism through which the elevated SGF29 expression contribute to oncogenic potential of c-Myc in hepatocellularcarcinoma (HCC). We propose that the upstream regulation of SGF29 elicited by sex-determining region Y (Sry) is also augmented in HCC. We hypothesize that c-Myc elevation driven by the deregulated Sry and SGF29 pathway is implicated in the male specific acquisition of human HCCs.

Inactivation of MYC reverses tumorigenesis

The MYC proto-oncogene is an essential regulator of many normal biological programmes. MYC, when activated as an oncogene, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of most types of human cancers. MYC overexpression in normal cells is restrained from causing cancer through multiple genetically and epigenetically controlled checkpoint mechanisms, including proliferative arrest, apoptosis and cellular senescence. When pathologically activated in the correct epigenetic and genetic contexts, MYC bypasses these mechanisms and drives many of the 'hallmark' features of cancer, including uncontrolled tumour growth associated with DNA replication and transcription, cellular proliferation and growth, protein synthesis and altered cellular metabolism. MYC also dictates tumour cell fate by enforcing self-renewal and by abrogating cellular senescence and differentiation programmes. Moreover, MYC influences the tumour microenvironment, including activating angiogenesis and suppressing the host immune response. Provocatively, brief or even partial suppression of MYC back to its physiological levels of activation can lead to the restoration of intrinsic checkpoint mechanisms, resulting in acute and sustained tumour regression associated with tumour cells undergoing proliferative arrest, differentiation, senescence and apoptosis, as well as remodelling of the tumour microenvironment, recruitment of an immune response and shutdown of angiogenesis. Hence, tumours appear to be addicted to the MYC oncogene because of both tumour cell intrinsic and host-dependent mechanisms. MYC is important for the regulation of both the initiation and maintenance of tumorigenesis.

MYC activation is a hallmark of cancer initiation and maintenance

The MYC proto-oncogene has been implicated in the pathogenesis of most types of human tumors. MYC activation alone in many normal cells is restrained from causing tumorigenesis through multiple genetic and epigenetically controlled checkpoint mechanisms, including proliferative arrest, apoptosis, and cellular senescence. When pathologically activated in a permissive epigenetic and/or genetic context, MYC bypasses these mechanisms, enforcing many of the "hallmark" features of cancer, including relentless tumor growth associated with DNA replication and transcription, cellular proliferation and growth, protein synthesis, and altered cellular metabolism. MYC mandates tumor cell fate, by inducing stemness and blocking cellular senescence and differentiation. Additionally, MYC orchestrates changes in the tumor microenvironment, including the activation of angiogenesis and suppression of the host immune response. Provocatively, brief or even partial suppression of MYC back to its physiological levels of activation can result in the restoration of intrinsic checkpoint mechanisms, resulting in acute and sustained tumor regression, associated with tumor cells undergoing proliferative arrest, differentiation, senescence, and apoptosis, as well as remodeling of the tumor microenvironment, recruitment of an immune response, and shutdown of angiogenesis. Hence, tumors appear to be "addicted" to MYC because of both tumor cell-intrinsic, cell-autonomous and host-dependent, immune cell-dependent mechanisms. Both the trajectory and persistence of many human cancers require sustained MYC activation. Multiscale mathematical modeling may be useful to predict when tumors will be addicted to MYC. MYC is a hallmark molecular feature of both the initiation and maintenance of tumorigenesis.

Induction of T cell-mediated immunity using a c-Myb DNA vaccine in a mouse model of colon cancer

Overexpression of the proto-oncogene c-Myb occurs in more than 80% of colorectal cancer (CRC) and is associated with aggressive disease and poor prognosis. To test c-Myb as a therapeutic target in CRC we devised a DNA fusion vaccine to generate an anti-CRC immune response. c-Myb, like many tumor antigens, is weakly immunogenic as it is a "self" antigen and subject to tolerance. To break tolerance, a DNA fusion vaccine was generated comprising wild-type c-Myb cDNA flanked by two potent Th epitopes derived from tetanus toxin. Vaccination was performed targeting a highly aggressive, weakly immunogenic, subcutaneous, syngeneic, colon adenocarcinoma cell line MC38 which highly expresses c-Myb. Prophylactic intravenous vaccination significantly suppressed tumor growth, through the induction of anti-tumor immunity for which the tetanus epitopes were essential. Vaccination generated anti-tumor immunity mediated by both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and increased infiltration of immune effector cells at the tumor site. Importantly, no evidence of autoimmune pathology in endogenous c-Myb expressing tissues was detected as a consequence of breaking tolerance. In summary, these results establish c-Myb as a potential antigen for immune targeting in CRC and serve to provide proof of principle for the continuing development of DNA vaccines targeting c-Myb to bring this approach to the clinic.

Targeted gene-delivery strategies for angiostatic cancer treatment

Gene therapy is one of the promising strategies in cancer treatment. Recent studies identified molecular targets on angiogenically activated endothelial cells that can be used to deliver gene-transfer vehicles to the tumor site specifically. Furthermore, non-viral vehicles are emerging as an alternative for traditional viral gene-therapy approaches. Here, we describe how viral and non-viral gene-transfer vehicles have been and can be modified to target tumor endothelial cells for anti-angiogenesis gene therapy. Improving the specificity and safety of existing gene-therapy vehicles will make angiogenesis-targeted cancer gene therapy a valuable tool in the clinical setting.

Antisense-based cancer therapeutics: are we there yet?

Despite significant advances that have been made in recent years, there is still an urgent need for novel, more effective and less toxic therapeutics for human cancer. Among many new molecular therapeutics being explored for cancer therapy, antisense oligonucleotides are a promising nucleic acid-based approach, with numerous antisense agents being evaluated in preclinical studies and several anticancer antisense drugs in clinical trials. Although there are still a few problems facing the development of antisense strategies for cancer therapy, with progress made in chemical modifications, target selection and drug delivery systems, antisense oligonucleotides are emerging as a novel approach to cancer therapy used alone or in combination with conventional treatments such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

Development of efficient packaging method of oligodeoxynucleotides by a condensed nano particle in lipid envelope structure

An efficient delivery system is required if antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) are to be utilized for gene therapy. We report herein on the development of a novel ODN delivery system, ODN-encapsulated nano particles (ODN-ENP) using an efficient and simple packaging method. The ODN-ENP consists of a condensed ODN particle and a lipid envelope, which can be equipped with various functional devices for the efficient delivery of ODN with a small diameter (150 nm). The encapsulation efficiency and ODN recovery of ODN-ENP were significantly higher than those of other packaging methods, such as a stabilized antisense-lipid particles method or a freeze-thaw method. Furthermore, the time required for the preparation of the ODN-ENP was shorter than the other methods. The method developed in this study is a simple and efficient packaging method for ODN with a condensed nano particle in lipid-envelope structure.