Excellent outcome with reduced treatment for infants with disseminated neuroblastoma without MYCN gene amplification

Stage 4N neuroblastoma before and during the era of anti-GD2 immunotherapy

Patients with stage 4N neuroblastoma (distant metastases limited to lymph nodes) stand out as virtually the only survivors of high-risk neuroblastoma (HR-NB) before myeloablative therapy (MAT) and immunotherapy with anti-GD2 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) became standard. Because no report presents more recent results with 4N, we analyzed our large 4N experience. All 51 pediatric 4N patients (<18 years old) diagnosed 1985 to 2021 were reviewed. HR-NB included MYCN-nonamplified 4N diagnosed at age ≥18 months and MYCN-amplified 4N. Among 34 MYCN-nonamplified high-risk patients, 20 are relapse-free 1.5+ to 37.5+ (median 12.5+) years post-diagnosis, including 13 without prior MAT and 5 treated with little (1 cycle; n = 2) or no mAb (n = 3), while 14 patients (7 post-MAT, 8 post-mAbs) relapsed (all soft tissue). Of 15 MYCN-amplified 4N patients, 7 are relapse-free 2.1+ to 26.4+ (median 11.6+) years from the start of chemotherapy (all received mAbs; 3 underwent MAT) and 4 are in second remission 4.2+ to 21.8+ years postrelapse (all soft tissue). Statistical analyses showed no significant association of survival with either MAT or mAbs for MYCN-nonamplified HR-NB; small numbers prevented these analyses for MYCN-amplified patients. The two patients with intermediate-risk 4N (14-months-old) are relapse-free 7+ years postresection of primary tumors; distant disease spontaneously regressed. The natural history of 4N is marked by NB confined to soft tissue without early relapse in bones or bone marrow, where mAbs have proven efficacy. These findings plus curability without MAT, as seen elsewhere and at our center, support consideration of treatment reduction for MYCN-nonamplified 4N.

Computational intelligence analysis of high-risk neuroblastoma patient health records reveals time to maximum response as one of the most relevant factors for outcome prediction

OBJECTIVE

Seek new candidate prognostic markers for neuroblastoma outcome, relapse or progression.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this multicentre and retrospective study, Random Forests coupled with recursive feature elimination techniques were applied to electronic records (55 clinical features) of 3034 neuroblastoma patients. To assess model performance and feature importance, dataset was split into a training set (80%) and a test set (20%).

RESULTS

In the test set, the mean Matthews correlation coefficient for the Random Forests models was greater than 0.46. Feature importance analysis revealed that, together with maximum response to first-line treatment (D_MAX_RESP), time to maximum response to first-line treatment (TIME_MAX_RESP.days) is a relevant predictor of both patients' outcome and relapse\progression. We showed the prognostic value of the max response to first-line treatment in clinically relevant subsets of high-, intermediate-, and low-risk patients for both overall and relapse-free survival (Log-rank p-value<0.0001). In high-risk patients older than 18 months and stage 4 tumour achieving a complete response or very good partial response, patients who exhibited a D_MAX_RESP greater than 9 months showed a better prognosis with respect to patients achieving D_MAX_RESP earlier than 9 months (overall survival): hazard ratio 3.3 95% confidence interval 1.8-5.9, Log-rank p-value p < 0.0001; relapse-free survival: 3.2 95%CI 1.8-5.6, Log-rank p-value p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Our findings evidence the emerging role of the TIME_MAX_RESP.days in addition to the D_MAX_RESP as relevant predictors of outcome and relapse\progression in neuroblastoma with potential clinical impact on the management and treatment of patients.

Children's Oncology Group's 2023 blueprint for research: Neuroblastoma

Neuroblastoma is the most common extra-cranial solid tumor in children and is known for its clinical heterogeneity. A greater understanding of the biology of this disease has led to both improved risk stratification and new approaches to therapy. Outcomes for children with low and intermediate risk disease are excellent overall, and efforts to decrease therapy for such patients have been largely successful. Although survival has improved over time for patients with high-risk disease and treatments evaluated in the relapse setting are now being moved into earlier phases of treatment, much work remains to improve survival and decrease therapy-related toxicities. Studies of highly annotated biobanked samples continue to lead to important insights regarding neuroblastoma biology. Such studies, along with correlative biology studies incorporated into therapeutic trials, are expected to continue to provide insights that lead to new and more effective therapies. A focus on translational science is accompanied by an emphasis on new agent development, optimized risk stratification, and international collaboration to address questions relevant to molecularly defined subsets of patients. In addition, the COG Neuroblastoma Committee is committed to addressing the patient/family experience, mitigating late effects of therapy, and studying social determinants of health in patients with neuroblastoma.

Segmental chromosomal aberrations as the poor prognostic factor in children over 18 months with stage 3 neuroblastoma without MYCN amplification

Introduction

Patients with stage 3 neuroblastoma (NBL) according to International Neuroblastoma Staging System (INSS) without MYCN amplification represent a heterogenous group with respect to disease presentation and prognosis.

Methods

Retrospective analysis of 40 stage 3 patients with NBL without MYCN amplification was performed. The prognostic value of age at diagnosis (under 18 vs over 18 months), International Neuroblastoma Pathology Classification (INPC) diagnostic category and presence of segmental or numerical chromosomes aberrations were evaluated, as well as biochemical markers. Array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) for analyzing copy number variations and Sanger sequencing for ALK point mutations were done.

Results

In 12 patients (two patients under 18 months), segmental chromosomal aberrations (SCA) were found and numerical chromosomal aberrations (NCA) were found in 16 patients (14 patients under 18 months). In children over 18 months SCA were more common (p=0.0001). Unfavorable pathology was significantly correlated with SCA genomic profile (p=0.04) and age over 18 months (p=0.008). No therapy failures occurred in children with NCA profile over or under 18 months or in children under 18 months, irrespective of pathology and CGH results. Three treatment failures occurred in the SCA group, in one patient CGH profile was not available. For the whole group at 3, 5 and 10-year OS and DFS were 0.95 (95% CI 0.81-0.99), 0.91 (95% CI 0.77-0.97) and 0.91 (95% CI 0.77-0.97), and 0.95 (95% CI 0.90-0.99), 0.92 (95% CI 0.85-0.98) and 0.86 (95% CI 0.78-0.97), respectively. DFS was significantly lower in the SCA group than in the NCA group (3-years, 5-years, and 10-years DFS 0.92 (95% CI 0.53-0.95), 0.80 (95% CI 0.40-0.95) and 0.60 (95% CI 0.16-0.87) vs 1.0, 1.0 and 1.0, respectively, p=0.005).

Conclusions

The risk of treatment failure was higher in patients with SCA profile, but only in patients over 18 months. All relapses occurred in children having obtained the complete remission, with no previous radiotherapy. In patients over 18 months, SCA profile should be taken into consideration for therapy stratification as it increases the risk of relapse and this group may require more intensive treatment.

A Simple, Test-Based Method to Control the Overestimation Bias in the Analysis of Potential Prognostic Tumour Markers

The early evaluation of prognostic tumour markers is commonly performed by comparing the survival of two groups of patients identified on the basis of a cut-off value. The corresponding hazard ratio (HR) is usually estimated, representing a measure of the relative risk between patients with marker values above and below the cut-off. A posteriori methods identifying an optimal cut-off are appropriate when the functional form of the relation between the marker distribution and patient survival is unknown, but they are prone to an overestimation bias. In the presence of a small sample size, which is typical of rare diseases, the external validation sets are hardly available and internal cross-validation could be unfeasible. We describe a new method to obtain an unbiased estimate of the HR at an optimal cut-off, exploiting the simple relation between the HR and the associated p-value estimated by a random permutation analysis. We validate the method on both simulated data and set of gene expression profiles from two large, publicly available data sets. Furthermore, a reanalysis of a previously published study, which included 134 Stage 4S neuroblastoma patients, allowed for the identification of E2F1 as a new gene with potential oncogenic activity. This finding was confirmed by an immunofluorescence analysis on an independent cohort.

Dilemmas in the Management of an Infant with Neuroblastoma Metastasized to the Muscles

The risk stratification of infants with metastatic neuroblastoma (NB) has evolved over time from stage 4/M or IVs/4S/MS/Ms according to various staging systems. Despite these developments for some genetic aberrations, the prognostic value and the impact of soft tissue metastases in infants are not fully understood, nor well described in the different classification systems, hampering the definitions to uniformly treat patients and predict prognosis. A literature review on staging of infants with M/MS disease was performed at the occasion of the diagnosis of NB in an 8-month-old boy who presented with atypical metastatic sites in soft tissue and an aberrant tumor biology. The definitions of stage 4/4S/4s/M/MS/Ms were evaluated and compared to enable tumor risk stratification and inform management. International NB groups use different criteria for defining stage of infants with metastasized NB, resulting in differences in management. Limited literature is available on soft tissue metastases, especially muscular metastases, and is poorly incorporated into management guidelines mainly due to the lack of data. The uncertain prognosis of rare genetic aberrancies may add to the difficulties in treatment decisions. In some rare cases of NB in infants, the international treatment classification is not sufficient for staging and treatment decisions. Based on tumor progression, biology of unknown significance and a lack of evidence to classify a child under 12 months with NB and multiple muscular metastases, the patient was treated as stage 4/M and intermediate-risk protocols with a favorable outcome.

Kigelia africana inhibits proliferation and induces cell death in stage 4 Neuroblastoma cell lines

Neuroblastoma (NB) is one of the most common solid pediatric tumors and especially high-risk NBs still account for about 12-15% of cancer related deaths in children. Kigelia africana (KA) is a plant used in traditional African medicine which has already shown its anti-cancer potential in several in vitro and in vivo studies. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of KA fruit extract on stage 4 high-risk NB cells. Therefore, NB cell lines with and without MYCN amplification and non-neoplastic cells were treated with KA fruit extract at different concentrations. The effect of KA on cell viability and apoptosis rate were assessed by bioluminescence-/fluorescence-based assays. Several proteins involved in survival, tumor growth, inflammation and metastasis were detected via western blot and immunofluorescence. Secreted cytokines were detected via ELISA. Phytochemical composition of the extract was analyzed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS). Our group demonstrates a dose- and time-dependent selective cytotoxic effect of KA fruit extract on NB, especially in MYCN non-amplified tumor cells, by inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing cell death. Western blot and immunofluorescence results demonstrate a regulation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), disialoganglioside GD2 and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in KA-treated tumor cells. Our results evidence striking anti-cancer properties of KA fruit and pave the way for further surveys on the therapeutic properties and mechanisms of action in NB.

Infantile Stage M Neuroblastoma With 11q Deletion, Mimicking Stage MS

A 4-month-old boy with abdominal distension was diagnosed with adrenal neuroblastoma with numerous metastases to the liver and nodules in the skin and muscles. Marked hepatomegaly spontaneously regressed with decreasing tumor marker levels, and the final diagnosis was stage M based on radiologic findings confirming metastasis to the pancreas. The neuroblastoma did not have the MYCN amplification but had an 11q aberration. Chemotherapy was initiated at age 6 months with a successful response. Our case reflects the heterogenous clinical behavior of neuroblastoma and highlights the challenging issue of the difference between stage M and stage MS neuroblastoma in infants.

Osteogenesis Imperfecta/Ehlers-Danlos Overlap Syndrome and Neuroblastoma-Case Report and Review of Literature

Osteogenesis imperfecta/Ehlers−Danlos (OI/EDS) overlap syndrome is a recently described disorder of connective tissue, characterized by mutation of COL1A1 (17q21.33) or COL1A2 (7q21.3) genes, that are involved in α-1 and α-2 chains of type 1 collagen synthesis. The clinical spectrum of this new clinical entity is broad: patients could present a mixed phenotype that includes features of both osteogenesis imperfecta (bone fragility, long bone fractures, blue sclerae, short stature) and Ehlers−Danlos syndrome (joint hyperextensibility, soft and hyperextensible skin, abnormal wound healing, easy bruising, vascular fragility). We reported the case of a young Caucasian girl with severe short stature and a previous history of neuroblastoma, who displayed the compound phenotype of OI/EDS. Next generation sequencing was applied to the proband and her parent genome. Our patient presented a de novo heterozygous COL1A1 variant (c.3235G>A, p.Gly1079Ser), whose presence might be indicative of diagnosis of OI/EDS overlap syndrome. We also hypothesize that the association with the previous history of neuroblastoma could be influenced by the presence of COL1A1 mutation, whose role has been already described in the behavior and progression of some cancers.

Unresectable thoracic neuroblastic tumors: Changes in image-defined risk factors after chemotherapy and impact on surgical management

PURPOSE

Neuroblastoma management in children is multimodal and depends on multiple factors, including the possibility of complete surgical resection. Image-defined risk factors (IDRFs) are used to assess the feasibility of primary surgery. We studied the changes in IDRFs after neoadjuvant chemotherapy for thoracic neurogenic tumors.

METHODS

We performed a multicenter review of 27 patients presenting with unresectable thoracic neurogenic tumors. Patients received neoadjuvant chemotherapy, according to their risk group. IDRF at diagnosis and before surgery were retrospectively analyzed by a radiologist and a surgeon, blind to the initial assessment. Surgical and oncologic outcomes were reviewed.

RESULTS

None of the patients presented MYCN amplification, and 78 IDRFs were identified at diagnosis. Vascular IDRFs were the most frequent, with 28 vascular IDRFs detected in 18 patients, 22 of which disappeared after chemotherapy. Reductions of tumor volume were associated with a regression of IDRFs. Patients undergoing minimally invasive surgery had smaller tumor volumes than those undergoing open surgery, and no vascular IDRF. Two patients received two additional courses of chemotherapy to reduce tumor volume sufficiently for surgery. One patient with ganglioneuroblastoma underwent early surgery due to a lack of response to initial chemotherapy.

CONCLUSION

Tumor volume reduction with neoadjuvant chemotherapy eliminates most IDRF in thoracic neurogenic tumors. Vascular IDRF are rapidly resolved at this site, making surgical resection and minimally invasive surgery possible.

Stage 4S Neuroblastoma: What Are the Outcomes? A Systematic Review of Published Studies

INTRODUCTION

 The prognosis of stage 4S/MS neuroblastoma has traditionally been reported as excellent, yet conflicting treatment protocols exist for this enigmatic disease. To critically address this question, we have undertaken a systematic review of published studies to accurately determine outcomes for infants with stage 4S/MS neuroblastoma.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

 Studies were identified using MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane databases using the relevant search terms. Literature reviews, case reports, and adult studies were excluded. Data were extracted independently following article selection by three authors and reviewed by the senior author.

RESULTS

 The original search retrieved 2,325 articles. Following application of exclusion criteria and removing duplicate data, 37 studies (1,105 patients) were included for final review. Overall patient survival was 84%. Twelve studies (544 patients) recorded MYCN status. Mortality in MYCN amplified tumors was 56%. Chromosome 1p/11q status was reported in four studies and 1p/11q deletion carried a 40% fatality rate. Management included observation only (201 patients, 8.5% mortality), surgical resection of primary tumor only (153 patients, 6.5% mortality), chemotherapy only (186 patients, 21% mortality), radiotherapy (5 deaths, 33% mortality), chemotherapy with surgery (160 patients, 10% mortality), surgery with radiotherapy (21 patients, 19% mortality), radiotherapy with chemotherapy (42 patients, 29% mortality), and surgery with chemotherapy and radiotherapy (27 patients, 33% mortality).

CONCLUSION

 There is a significant mortality observed in stage 4S/MS neuroblastoma infants with a dismal outcome observed in those patients with MYCN amplification and 1p/11q deletion. Those patients suitably amenable for conservative management or surgery to excise the primary tumor carry the best prognosis.

Staging childhood cancers in Europe: Application of the Toronto stage principles for neuroblastoma and Wilms tumour. The JARC pilot study

BACKGROUND

The 'Toronto consensus principles and guidelines' (TG) provided paediatric-specific staging system affordable by population-based cancer registries (CRs). Within the European Rare Cancers Joint Action, a pilot study of the application of TG for childhood cancer (CC) was conducted to test the ability of CRs to reconstruct stage, describe stage across countries and assess survival by stage.

PROCEDURE

Twenty-five CRs representing 15 countries contributed data on a representative sample of patients with neuroblastoma (NB) and Wilms tumour (WT) <15 years, diagnosed between 2000 and 2016. Outcome was calculated by Kaplan-Meier method and by Cox regression model.

RESULTS

Stage was reconstructed for 95% of cases. Around half of the children had localised or locoregional disease at diagnosis. The proportion of metastatic cases was 38% for NB and 13% for WT. Three-year survival was >90% for locoregional cases both of NB and WT, 58% for NB M-stage and 77% for WT stage-IV. Older age was associated with more advanced stage.

CONCLUSIONS

European CRs were able to reconstruct stage according to the TG. Stage should be included in the routine collection of variables. Stage information had clear prognostic value and should be used to investigate survival variations between countries or over time.

Clinical and molecular characterization of patients with stage 4(M) neuroblastoma aged less than 18 months without MYCN amplification

INTRODUCTION

The survival of children with stage 4(M) neuroblastoma without MYCN amplification and below the age of 18 months is considered better than the still dismal outcome of older high-risk neuroblastoma patients. This study analyzes the impact of clinical and molecular characteristics on the long-term outcome.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Clinical presentation, survival, and recurrence patterns of patients enrolled onto trials NB90, NB97, and NB2004 were retrospectively analyzed. Gene expression signatures based on RNA microarrays (TH10) were investigated if tumor material was available.

RESULTS

Between 1990 and 2015, 177 patients with stage 4(M) MYCN nonamplified neuroblastoma aged less than 18 months at diagnosis were eligible. After a median follow-up of 9.7 years (IQR 5.0, 13.4), the proportions of 10-year event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival (OS) were 73% (95% confidence interval [CI] 67-79%) and 86% (95% CI 80-92%), respectively. Of the 27 neuroblastoma recurrences, 44% occurred in more than one site. Four additional patients presented histologically mature ganglioneuroma at recurrence. Six patients developed a secondary malignancy. The secondary 5-year EFS and OS of the 27 patients with neuroblastoma recurrence were 44% and 59%, respectively. TH10 gene expression signature was not prognostically predictive in the investigated subcohort.

CONCLUSION

The outcome of patients with stage 4(M) neuroblastoma aged less than 18 months is favorable when treated with high-risk or otherwise intensive therapy. The development of secondary malignancies and the potential of maturation to ganglioneuroma call for a controlled stepwise reduction of treatment intensity.

[Radiological imaging of neuroblastoma]

BACKGROUND

Neuroblastomas are tumors of the sympathetic nervous system that arise from the sympathetic trunk and adrenal glands. Tissue compositions, molecular genetics, and overall prognosis are heterogeneous. With an incidence of 1:6000, neuroblastomas account for 5.5% of childhood tumors. They usually occur in children up to preschool age with the mean age of 14 months. Adults are very rarely affected. Imaging, especially magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), plays an essential role in diagnosis, risk stratification, and therapy control.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Based on a selective literature search in the PubMed database, the national and international societies' guidelines and study protocols, the imaging standards and the latest developments are presented.

CONCLUSION

Imaging plays a key role in neuroblastomas due to the heterogeneous prognosis and the resulting very different therapy. A high degree of standardization in implementation and interpretation is important in every phase of the disease process. Sonography, MRI with diffusion weighting, and ¹²³I‑mIBG-SPECT are essential modalities. The extent of the diffusion restriction for assessing the degree of maturity and assessing the therapeutic response is becoming increasingly important in clinical routine. Up to now, PET imaging has mostly been complementary. Newly developed PET tracers promise comprehensive diagnostics and may also play a major role in theranostics.

Liquid biomarkers for the management of paediatric neuroblastoma: an approach to personalised and targeted cancer therapy

Background:

Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial solid tumour of infancy and accounts for about 6–10% of paediatric cancers. It has a biologically and clinically heterogeneous behaviour that ranges from spontaneous regression to cases of highly aggressive metastatic disease that could be unresponsive to standard therapy. In recent years, there have been several investigations into the development of various diagnostic, predictive and prognostic biomarkers towards personalised and targeted management of the disease.

Materials and Methods:

This paper reports on the review of current clinical and emerging biomarkers used in risk assessment, screening for early detection and diagnosis, prognostication and monitoring of the response of treatment of neuroblastoma in paediatric patients.

Conclusions:

Tumour markers can significantly improve diagnosis; however, the invasive, unpleasant and inconvenient nature of current tissue biopsies limits their applications, especially in paediatric patients. Therefore, the development of a non-invasive, reliable high accurate and personalised diagnostic tool capable of early detection and rapid response is the most promising step towards advanced cancer management from tumour diagnosis, therapy to patient monitoring and represents an important step towards the promise of precision, personalised and targeted medicine. Liquid biopsy assay with wide ranges of clinical applications is emerging to hold incredible potential for advancing cancer treatment and has greater promise for diagnostic purposes, identification and tracking of tumour-specific alterations during the course of the disease and to guide therapeutic decisions.

Bone Marrow Environment in Metastatic Neuroblastoma

The study of the interactions occurring in the BM environment has been facilitated by the peculiar nature of metastatic NB. In fact: (i) metastases are present at diagnosis; (ii) metastases are confined in a very specific tissue, the BM, suggestive of a strong attraction and possibility of survival; (iii) differently from adult cancers, NB metastases are available because the diagnostic procedures require morphological examination of BM; (iv) NB metastatic cells express surface antigens that allow enrichment of NB metastatic cells by immune-magnetic separation; and (v) patients with localized disease represent an internal control to discriminate specific alterations occurring in the metastatic niche from generic alterations determined by the neoplastic growth at the primary site. Here, we first review the information regarding the features of BM-infiltrating NB cells. Then, we focus on the alterations found in the BM of children with metastatic NB as compared to healthy children and children with localized NB. Specifically, information regarding all the BM cell populations and their sub-sets will be first examined in the context of BM microenvironment in metastatic NB. In the last part, the information regarding the soluble factors will be presented.

Metastatic progression in infants diagnosed with stage 4S neuroblastoma. A study of the Italian Neuroblastoma Registry

PURPOSE

Stage 4S neuroblastoma, a tumor affecting infants, is characterized by the capacity to regress spontaneously and high cure rate. About a third of these infants undergo tumor progression requiring antitumor treatment and 10-15% eventually die. In case of metastatic progression, it may occur either at 4S sites (mainly liver) or sites characterizing stage 4 (mainly bone). Aim of this study was to estimate incidence, presenting features and outcome of infants who progressed to stage 4S or stage 4 sites.

PATIENTS

Of 280 Italian infants diagnosed with stage 4S neuroblastoma between 1979 and 2013 and registered in the Italian Neuroblastoma Registry, 268 were evaluable for this study, of whom 57 developed metastatic progression.

RESULTS

Progression to stage 4S sites occurred in 29/268 infants (10.8%) (Group A) and to stage 4 in 28/268 (10.4%) (Group B). No significant difference was observed between the two groups at the time of diagnosis. At the time of progression, Group A infants were younger (7.3 vs 14.4 months, P = .001) and had a shorter interval from diagnosis to progression (3.8 vs 9.6 months, P = .001). Survival after progression was worse for Group B infants (45% vs 69%, P = .058) and was associated with age at diagnosis lower than 2 months (P = .005) and adrenal primary tumor site (P = .008). Survival rates increased for both groups along the study period.

CONCLUSIONS

Infants who progressed to stage 4 did worse, possibly in relation to older age at progression and longer interval between diagnosis and progression. Large prospective studies of these patients may lead to more effective treatments.

Spontaneous regression of gastric gastrinoma after resection of metastases to the lesser omentum: A case report and review of literature

BACKGROUND

Gastric gastrinoma and spontaneous tumor regression are both very rarely encountered. We report the first case of spontaneous regression of gastric gastrinoma.

CASE SUMMARY

A 37-year-old man with a 9-year history of chronic abdominal pain was referred for evaluation of an 8 cm mass in the lesser omentum discovered incidentally on abdominal computed tomography. The tumor was diagnosed as grade 2 neuroendocrine neoplasm (NEN) on endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration. Screening esophagogastroduodenoscopy revealed a 7 mm red polypoid lesion with central depression in the gastric antrum, also confirmed to be a grade 2 NEN. Laparoscopic removal of the abdominal mass confirmed it to be a metastatic gastrinoma lesion. The gastric lesion was subsequently diagnosed as primary gastric gastrinoma. Three months later, the gastric lesion had disappeared without treatment. The patient remains symptom-free with normal fasting serum gastrin and no recurrence of gastrinoma during 36 mo of follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Gastric gastrinoma may arise as a polypoid lesion in the gastric antrum. Spontaneous regression can rarely occur after biopsy.

Resection of primary tumor in stage 4S neuroblastoma: a second study by the Italian Neuroblastoma Group

PURPOSE

To clarify the role of primary tumor resection in stage 4S neuroblastoma.

METHODS

We investigated a cohort of 172 infants diagnosed with stage 4S neuroblastoma between 1994 and 2013. Of 160 evaluable patients, 62 underwent upfront resection of the primary tumor and 98 did not.

RESULTS

Five-year progression-free and overall survival were significantly better in those who had undergone upfront surgery (83.6% vs 64.2% and 96.8% vs 85.7%, respectively). One post-operative death and four non-fatal complications occurred in the resection group. Three patients who had not undergone resection died of chemotherapy-related toxicity. Thirteen patients underwent late surgery to remove a residual tumor, without complications: all but one alive. Outcomes were better in patients diagnosed from 2000 onwards.

CONCLUSION

Infants diagnosed with stage 4S neuroblastoma who underwent upfront tumor resection had a better outcome. However, this result cannot be definitely attributed to surgery, since these patients were selected on the basis of their favorable presenting features. Although the question of whether to operate or not at disease onset is still unsolved, this study confirms the importance of obtaining enough adequate tumor tissue to enable histological and biological studies to properly address treatment, to achieve the best possible outcome.

Tailoring Therapy for Children With Neuroblastoma on the Basis of Risk Group Classification: Past, Present, and Future

For children with neuroblastoma, the likelihood of cure varies widely according to age at diagnosis, disease stage, and tumor biology. Treatments are tailored for children with this clinically heterogeneous malignancy on the basis of a combination of markers that are predictive of risk of relapse and death. Sequential risk-based, cooperative-group clinical trials conducted during the past 4 decades have led to improved outcome for children with neuroblastoma. Increasingly accurate risk classification and refinements in treatment stratification strategies have been achieved with the more recent discovery of robust genomic and molecular biomarkers. In this review, we discuss the history of neuroblastoma risk classification in North America and Europe and highlight efforts by the International Neuroblastoma Risk Group (INRG) Task Force to develop a consensus approach for pretreatment stratification using seven risk criteria including an image-based staging system-the INRG Staging System. We also update readers on the current Children's Oncology Group risk classifier and outline plans for the development of a revised 2021 Children's Oncology Group classifier that will incorporate INRG Staging System criteria to facilitate harmonization of risk-based frontline treatment strategies conducted around the globe. In addition, we discuss new approaches to establish increasingly robust, future risk classification algorithms that will further refine treatment stratification using machine learning tools and expanded data from electronic health records and the INRG Data Commons.

PRIMAGE project: predictive in silico multiscale analytics to support childhood cancer personalised evaluation empowered by imaging biomarkers

PRIMAGE is one of the largest and more ambitious research projects dealing with medical imaging, artificial intelligence and cancer treatment in children. It is a 4-year European Commission-financed project that has 16 European partners in the consortium, including the European Society for Paediatric Oncology, two imaging biobanks, and three prominent European paediatric oncology units. The project is constructed as an observational in silico study involving high-quality anonymised datasets (imaging, clinical, molecular, and genetics) for the training and validation of machine learning and multiscale algorithms. The open cloud-based platform will offer precise clinical assistance for phenotyping (diagnosis), treatment allocation (prediction), and patient endpoints (prognosis), based on the use of imaging biomarkers, tumour growth simulation, advanced visualisation of confidence scores, and machine-learning approaches. The decision support prototype will be constructed and validated on two paediatric cancers: neuroblastoma and diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. External validation will be performed on data recruited from independent collaborative centres. Final results will be available for the scientific community at the end of the project, and ready for translation to other malignant solid tumours.

Glycation Leads to Increased Polysialylation and Promotes the Metastatic Potential of Neuroblastoma Cells

Neuroblastoma is the second most frequent extracranial tumor, affecting young children worldwide. One hallmark of tumors such as neuroblastomas, is the expression of polysialic acid, which interferes with adhesion and may promote invasion and metastasis. Since tumor cells use glycolysis for energy production, they thereby produce as side product methylglyoxal (MGO), which reacts with proteins to advanced glycation end products in a mechanism called glycation. Here we analyzed the expression of (poly) sialic acid and adhesion of Kelly neuroblastoma cells after glycation with MGO. We found that both sialylation and polysialylation is increased after glycation. Furthermore, glycated Kelly neuroblastoma cells had a much higher potential for migration and invasion compared with non-glycated cells.

Norepinephrine-Transporter-Targeted and DNA-Co-Targeted Theranostic Guanidines

High risk neuroblastoma often recurs, even with aggressive treatments. Clinical evidence suggests that proliferative activities are predictive of poor outcomes. This report describes syntheses, characterization, and biological properties of theranostic guanidines that target norepinephrine transporter and undergo intracellular processing, and subsequently their catabolites are efficiently incorporated into DNA of proliferating neuroblastoma cells. Radioactive guanidines are synthesized from 5-radioiodo-2'-deoxyuridine, a molecular radiotherapy platform with clinically proven minimal toxicities and DNA-targeting properties. The transport of radioactive guanidines into neuroblastoma cells is active as indicated by the competitive suppression of cellular uptake by meta-iodobenzylguanidine. The rate of intracellular processing and DNA uptake is influenced by the agent's catabolic stability and cell population doubling times. The radiotoxicity is directly proportional to DNA uptake and duration of exposure. Biodistribution of 5-[¹²⁵I]iodo-3'-O-(ε-guanidinohexanoyl)-2'-deoxyuridine in a mouse neuroblastoma model shows significant tumor retention of radioactivity. Neuroblastoma xenografts regress in response to the clinically achievable doses of this agent.

Prognostic factor analysis of stage 4S neuroblastoma in infant patients: A single center study

BACKGROUND

Stage 4S neuroblastoma is a unique category of metastatic disease in infants with a favorable outlook. The purpose of this study was to clarify the prognostic factors of patients with stage 4S neuroblastoma.

METHOD

Data were retrospectively collected from infant patients with stage 4S neuroblastoma in our department from May 2000 to May 2018. Patient characteristics, operative variables, perioperative outcomes, overall survival (OS), and recurrence were evaluated. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify the prognostic factors of stage 4S neuroblastoma.

RESULT

A total of 28 infant patients (71. 4% males) with a mean age of 3.7 ± 2.7 months were recruited. The involved metastatic sites included liver (n = 18), skin (n = 9), and bone marrow (n = 5). Nine patients received biopsy, and 14 patients underwent original lesions resection followed by postchemotherapy. Five patients accompanied with abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) were given experiential chemotherapy. The follow-up time ranged from 12 M to 156 M, with a mean of 32 months. Twenty-two patients completed treatment and survived. Two patients were still under treatment. Four patients died, including three with ACS. No recurrence was observed. According to Kaplan-Meier method, the 5-year overall survival was 84.4%. ACS (p = 0.001) and chemotherapy sensitivity (p < 0.001) were associated with all causes of mortality of stage 4S neuroblastoma, while neuroblastoma liver metastasis (P = 0.107), skin metastasis (P = 0.137), bone marrow metastasis (P = 0.89), tumor radical resection (P = 0.202), prenatal diagnosis (P = 0.314), and younger than 2 months of age (P = 0.683) did not emerge as prognostic factors.

CONCLUSION

ACS and chemotherapy sensitivity were highly important factors that had an association with the prognosis of stage 4S neuroblastoma.

TYPE OF STUDY

Prognosis study.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV.

Maintaining Outstanding Outcomes Using Response- and Biology-Based Therapy for Intermediate-Risk Neuroblastoma: A Report From the Children's Oncology Group Study ANBL0531

PURPOSE

The primary objective of the Children's Oncology Group study ANBL0531 (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00499616) was to reduce therapy for subsets of patients with intermediate-risk neuroblastoma using a biology- and response-based algorithm to assign treatment duration while maintaining a 3-year overall survival (OS) of 95% or more for the entire cohort.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Children younger than age 12 years with intermediate-risk stage 2A/2B or stage 3 tumors with favorable histology; infants younger than age 365 days with stage 3, 4 or 4S disease; and toddlers from 365 to younger than 547 days with favorable histology, hyperdiploid stage 4, or unfavorable histology stage 3 tumors were eligible. Patients with MYCN-amplified tumors were excluded. Patients were assigned to initially receive two (group 2), four (group 3), or eight (group 4) cycles of chemotherapy with or without surgery on the basis of prognostic markers, including allelic status of chromosomes 1p and 11q; ultimate duration of therapy was determined by overall response.

RESULTS

Between 2007 and 2011, 404 evaluable patients were enrolled. Compared with legacy Children's Oncology Group studies, subsets of patients had a reduction in treatment. The 3-year event-free survival and OS rates were 83.2% (95% CI, 79.4% to 87.0%) and 94.9% (95% CI, 92.7% to 97.2%), respectively. Infants with stage 4 tumors with favorable biology (n = 61) had superior 3-year event-free survival compared with patients with one or more unfavorable biologic features (n = 47; 86.9% [95% CI, 78.3% to 95.4%] v 66.8% [95% CI, 53.1% to 80.6%]; P = .02), with a trend toward OS advantage (95.0% [95% CI, 89.5% to 100%] v 86.7% [95% CI, 76.6% to 96.7%], respectively; P = .08). OS for patients with localized disease was 100%.

CONCLUSION

Excellent survival was achieved with this treatment algorithm, with reduction of therapy for subsets of patients. More-effective treatment strategies still are needed for infants with unfavorable biology stage 4 disease.

Impact of extent of resection on survival in high-risk neuroblastoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Despite the development of new treatment options, the prognosis of high-risk neuroblastoma patients is still poor. Many studies designed to elaborate the association between the extent of resection (EOR) and outcome have reported conflicting results. We performed a meta-analysis to assess whether greater EOR is associated with improved overall survival (OS) and event-free survival (EFS) in patients with high-risk neuroblastoma.

METHODS

Embase, PubMed, Cochrane library, and conference proceedings were searched between March 10 and October 1, 2017. Studies of pediatric patients with newly diagnosed high-risk neuroblastoma comparing various EOR and presenting objective overall or event-free survival data were included. Primary outcomes were relative risk (RR) for mortality at 3 and 5 years. Secondary outcomes were 3-year and 5-year EFS rates.

RESULTS

19 retrospective studies including a total of 2358 cases were identified. Compared with subtotal resection (STR), patients who underwent gross total resection (GTR) had significantly decreased mortality at 3 years (RR, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.58-0.82; P < 0.001; I² = 27%) and 5 years (RR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.60-0.82; P < 0.001; I² = 38%). A similar decrease was revealed in the 3-year risk for mortality for STR compared with biopsy (RR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.53-0.95; P = 0.02; I² = 0%). When comparing any resection with biopsy, resection group also showed a decreased risk for mortality at 3 years (RR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.53-0.83; P < 0.001; I² = 8%) and 5 years (RR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.50-0.91; P = 0.009; I² = 61%). With respect to the risk ratio for EFS, there were no significant differences in any comparisons.

CONCLUSION

This literature highlights the importance of "extent of resection" in treating high-risk neuroblastoma, and when feasible, the currently available evidences in favor of the use of GTR for high-risk neuroblastoma for reducing 3- and 5-year mortality.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

3A.

Clinically Relevant Biomarker Discovery in High-Risk Recurrent Neuroblastoma

Neuroblastoma is a pediatric cancer of the developing sympathetic nervous system. High-risk neuroblastoma patients typically undergo an initial remission in response to treatment, followed by recurrence of aggressive tumors that have become refractory to further treatment. The need for biomarkers that can select patients not responding well to therapy in an early phase is therefore needed. In this study, we used next generation sequencing technology to determine the expression profiles in high-risk neuroblastoma cell lines established before and after therapy. Using partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) with least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) and leave-one-out cross-validation, we identified a panel of 55 messenger RNAs and 17 long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) which were significantly altered in the expression between cell lines isolated from primary and recurrent tumors. From a neuroblastoma patient cohort, we found 20 of the 55 protein-coding genes to be differentially expressed in patients with unfavorable compared with favorable outcome. We further found a twofold increase or decrease in hazard ratios in these genes when comparing patients with unfavorable and favorable outcome. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) revealed that these genes were involved in proliferation, differentiation and regulated by Polycomb group (PcG) proteins. Of the 17 lncRNAs, 3 upregulated (NEAT1, SH3BP5-AS1, NORAD) and 3 downregulated lncRNAs (DUBR, MEG3, DHRS4-AS1) were also found to be differentially expressed in favorable compared with unfavorable outcome. Moreover, using expression profiles on both miRNAs and mRNAs in the same cohort of cell lines, we found 13 downregulated and 18 upregulated experimentally observed miRNA target genes targeted by miR-21, -424 and -30e, -29b, -138, -494, -181a, -34a, -29b, respectively. The advantage of analyzing biomarkers in a clinically relevant neuroblastoma model system enables further studies on the effect of individual genes upon gene perturbation. In summary, this study identified several genes, which may aid in the prediction of response to therapy and tumor recurrence.

The Evolution of Risk Classification for Neuroblastoma

Neuroblastoma is a tumor with great clinical heterogeneity. Patients in North America are risk-stratified using a number of features including age at diagnosis, disease stage, tumor histology, MYCN status (amplified versus nonamplified), and tumor cell ploidy. In this paper, we review the evidence for utilizing these features in the risk classification of neuroblastic tumors. Additionally, we review the clinical and biologic criteria used by various cooperative groups to define low, intermediate, and high-risk disease populations in clinical trials, highlighting the differences in risk classification internationally. Finally, we discuss the development of the International Neuroblastoma Risk Group classification system, designed to begin worldwide standardization of neuroblastoma pretreatment risk classification and allow comparison of clinical trials conducted through different cooperative groups.

Defining Risk Factors for Chemotherapeutic Intervention in Infants With Stage 4S Neuroblastoma: A Report From Children's Oncology Group Study ANBL0531

PURPOSE

Infants with stage 4S neuroblastoma usually have favorable outcomes with observation or minimal chemotherapy. However, young infants with symptoms secondary to massive hepatomegaly or with unfavorable tumor biology are at high risk of death. Our aim was to improve outcomes for patients with symptomatic and/or unfavorable biology 4S neuroblastoma with a uniform treatment approach using a biology- and response-based algorithm.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The subset of patients with 4S disease with MYCN-not amplified tumors with impaired or impending organ dysfunction, or with unfavorable histology and/or diploid DNA index, were eligible. Patients were assigned to receive two, four, or eight cycles of chemotherapy on the basis of histology, diploid DNA index, chromosome arm 1p or 11q loss of heterozygosity (LOH) status, and symptoms.

RESULTS

Forty-nine eligible patients were enrolled: 41 were symptomatic and 28 had unfavorable biology. Seventeen patients (symptomatic, favorable biology) were assigned two cycles, 21 patients (any unfavorable biologic feature without 1p or 11q LOH) were assigned four cycles, and 11 patients (unfavorable biology including 1p and/or 11q LOH [n = 7] or symptomatic with unknown biology [n = 4]), were assigned eight cycles. The 3-year overall survival was 81.4% ± 5.8%. Eight of nine deaths were in patients younger than 2 months of age at diagnosis (median, 9 days [range, 1 to 68 days]): five acute deaths were a result of hepatomegaly and associated toxicities; two were a result of late relapse in patients with unfavorable biology; and two were a result of treatment complications. No deaths occurred after protocol-mandated pre-emptive treatment of infants younger than 2 months with hepatomegaly, regardless of symptoms. A new scoring algorithm for emergent chemotherapy in patients with 4S disease was developed on the basis of this experience.

CONCLUSION

The outcome for 4S neuroblastoma can be improved with pre-emptive chemotherapy for evolving hepatomegaly or other baseline comorbidities in infants younger than 2 months of age.

Event-free survival of infants and toddlers enrolled in the HR-NBL-1/SIOPEN trial is associated with the level of neuroblastoma mRNAs at diagnosis

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether levels of neuroblastoma mRNAs in bone marrow and peripheral blood from stage M infants (≤12 months of age at diagnosis, MYCN amplified) and toddlers (between 12 and 18 months, any MYCN status) predict event-free survival (EFS).

METHODS

Bone marrow aspirates and peripheral blood samples from 97 infants/toddlers enrolled in the European High-Risk Neuroblastoma trial were collected at diagnosis in PAXgene™ blood RNA tubes. Samples were analyzed by reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction according to standardized procedures.

RESULTS

Bone marrow tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) or paired-like homeobox 2b (PHOX2B) levels in the highest tertile were associated with worse EFS; hazard ratios, adjusted for age and MYCN status, were 1.5 and 1.8 respectively. Expression of both TH and PHOX2B in the highest tertile predicted worse outcome (p = 0.015), and identified 20 (23%) infants/toddlers with 5-year EFS of 20% (95%CI: 4%-44%). Prognostic significance was maintained after adjusting for over-fitting bias (p = 0.038), age and MYCN status. In peripheral blood, PHOX2B levels in the highest tertile predicted a two-fold increased risk of an event (p = 0.032), and identified 23 (34%) infants/toddlers with 5-year EFS of 29% (95%CI: 12%-48%). Time-dependent receiver operating characteristic analysis confirmed the prognostic value of combined TH and PHOX2B in bone marrow and of PHOX2B in peripheral blood during the first year of follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

High levels of bone marrow TH and PHOX2B and of peripheral blood PHOX2B at diagnosis allow early identification of a group of high-risk infant and toddlers with neuroblastoma who may be candidates for alternative treatments. Integration with additional biomarkers, as well as validation in additional international trials is warranted.

Neuroblastoma

Neuroblastoma is one of the most common solid tumors in children and has a diverse clinical behavior that largely depends on the tumor biology. Neuroblastoma exhibits unique features, such as early age of onset, high frequency of metastatic disease at diagnosis in patients over 1 year of age and the tendency for spontaneous regression of tumors in infants. The high-risk tumors frequently have amplification of the MYCN oncogene as well as segmental chromosome alterations with poor survival. Recent advanced genomic sequencing technology has revealed that mutation of ALK, which is present in ~10% of primary tumors, often causes familial neuroblastoma with germline mutation. However, the frequency of gene mutations is relatively small and other aberrations, such as epigenetic abnormalities, have also been proposed. The risk-stratified therapy was introduced by the Japan Neuroblastoma Study Group (JNBSG), which is now moving to the Neuroblastoma Committee of Japan Children's Cancer Group (JCCG). Several clinical studies have facilitated the reduction of therapy for children with low-risk neuroblastoma disease and the significant improvement of cure rates for patients with intermediate-risk as well as high-risk disease. Therapy for patients with high-risk disease includes intensive induction chemotherapy and myeloablative chemotherapy, followed by the treatment of minimal residual disease using differentiation therapy and immunotherapy. The JCCG aims for better cures and long-term quality of life for children with cancer by facilitating new approaches targeting novel driver proteins, genetic pathways and the tumor microenvironment.

Outcomes and complications of surgery in patients with intermediate-risk neuroblastoma: experience from an Indian tertiary Cancer Centre

PURPOSE

The treatment of intermediate risk (IR) neuroblastoma has evolved with the focus now on reducing the drugs, dosage, and duration of chemotherapy. The aim of this study is to present the outcomes of treatment and the complications of surgery in patients with IR neuroblastoma treated at a tertiary cancer center in India.

METHODS

All eligible patients with IR neuroblastoma treated between April 2005 and August 2016 were identified. The presence and number of image-defined risk factors (IDRF) before and after neoadjuvant chemotherapy were retrospectively analyzed as were the extent of surgery, complications, and outcomes.

RESULTS

Of 282 neuroblastoma patients treated during the study period, 54 had IR neuroblastoma. Complete excision was achieved in 25 patients. There were 26 surgical complications in 22 patients with a similar incidence in patients with complete (n = 13) or incomplete (n = 13) resection (p = 0.78). After a median follow-up of 47 months, the 4-year overall and event-free survival was 91.5% and 75%, respectively. There was no difference in survival between patients who underwent complete resection versus those with incomplete resection (p = 0.9).

CONCLUSION

Outcomes of IR neuroblastoma are favorable. The extent of resection does not affect the survival and complications can occur even when the resection is incomplete.

Excellent treatment outcomes in children younger than 18 months with stage 4 MYCN nonamplified neuroblastoma

Purpose

Although the prognosis is generally good in patients with intermediate-risk neuroblastoma, no consensus has been reached on the ideal treatment regimen. This study analyzed treatment outcomes and toxicities in patients younger than 18 months with stage 4 MYCN nonamplified neuroblastoma.

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed 20 patients younger than 18 months newly diagnosed with stage 4 MYCN nonamplified neuroblastoma between January 2009 and December 2015. Patients received 9 cycles of chemotherapy and surgery, with or without local radiotherapy, followed by 12 cycles of differentiation therapy with 13-cis-retinoic acid. Chemotherapy consisted of alternating cycles of cisplatin, etoposide, doxorubicin, and cyclophosphamide (CEDC) and ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide (ICE) regimens.

Results

The most common primary tumor site was the abdomen (85%), and the most common metastatic sites were the lymph nodes (65%), followed by the bones (60%), liver (55%), skin (45%), and bone marrow (25%). At the end of induction therapy, 14 patients (70%) achieved complete response, with 1 achieving very good partial response, 4 achieving partial response, and 1 showing mixed response. Nine patients (45%) received local radiotherapy. At a median follow-up of 47 months (range, 17–91 months), none of these patients experienced relapse, progression, or secondary malignancy, or died. Three years after chemotherapy completion, none of the patients had experienced grade ≥3 late adverse effects.

Conclusion

Patients younger than 18 months with stage 4 MYCN nonamplified neuroblastoma showed excellent outcomes, without significant late adverse effects, when treated with alternating cycles of CEDC and ICE, followed by surgery and differentiation therapy.

Neuroblastoma: clinical and biological approach to risk stratification and treatment

Neuroblastoma is the most common extra-cranial solid tumor of childhood and the most common in the first year of life. It is a unique malignancy in that infants often present with either localized or metastatic disease that can spontaneously regress without intervention while older children can succumb to the disease after months to years of arduous therapy. Given this wide range of outcomes, the International Neuroblastoma Risk Group was created to stratify patients based on presenting characteristics and tumor biology in order to guide intensity of treatment strategies. The goal has been to decrease therapy for low-risk patients to avoid long-term complications while augmenting and targeting therapies for high-risk patients to improve overall survival. The international risk stratification depends on age, stage, histology, MYCN gene amplification status, tumor cell ploidy and segmental chromosomal abnormalities. Treatment for asymptomatic low-risk patients with an estimated survival of > 98% is often observation or surgical resection alone, whereas intermediate-risk patients with an estimated survival of > 90% require moderate doses of response-adjusted chemotherapy along with resection. High-risk patients undergo multiple cycles of combination chemotherapy before surgery, followed by consolidation with myeloablative autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and local radiation and finally immunotherapy with differentiation therapy as maintenance phase. With this approach, outcome for patients with neuroblastoma has improved, as the field continues to expand efforts in more targeted therapies for high-risk patients.

Molecular Classification Substitutes for the Prognostic Variables Stage, Age, and MYCN Status in Neuroblastoma Risk Assessment

BACKGROUND: Current risk stratification systems for neuroblastoma patients consider clinical, histopathological, and genetic variables, and additional prognostic markers have been proposed in recent years. We here sought to select highly informative covariates in a multistep strategy based on consecutive Cox regression models, resulting in a risk score that integrates hazard ratios of prognostic variables. METHODS: A cohort of 695 neuroblastoma patients was divided into a discovery set (n = 75) for multigene predictor generation, a training set (n = 411) for risk score development, and a validation set (n = 209). Relevant prognostic variables were identified by stepwise multivariable L1-penalized least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) Cox regression, followed by backward selection in multivariable Cox regression, and then integrated into a novel risk score. RESULTS: The variables stage, age, MYCN status, and two multigene predictors, NB-th24 and NB-th44, were selected as independent prognostic markers by LASSO Cox regression analysis. Following backward selection, only the multigene predictors were retained in the final model. Integration of these classifiers in a risk scoring system distinguished three patient subgroups that differed substantially in their outcome. The scoring system discriminated patients with diverging outcome in the validation cohort (5-year event-free survival, 84.9 ± 3.4 vs 63.6 ± 14.5 vs 31.0 ± 5.4; P < .001), and its prognostic value was validated by multivariable analysis. CONCLUSION: We here propose a translational strategy for developing risk assessment systems based on hazard ratios of relevant prognostic variables. Our final neuroblastoma risk score comprised two multigene predictors only, supporting the notion that molecular properties of the tumor cells strongly impact clinical courses of neuroblastoma patients.

Revisions to the International Neuroblastoma Response Criteria: A Consensus Statement From the National Cancer Institute Clinical Trials Planning Meeting

Purpose More than two decades ago, an international working group established the International Neuroblastoma Response Criteria (INRC) to assess treatment response in children with neuroblastoma. However, this system requires modification to incorporate modern imaging techniques and new methods for quantifying bone marrow disease that were not previously widely available. The National Cancer Institute sponsored a clinical trials planning meeting in 2012 to update and refine response criteria for patients with neuroblastoma. Methods Multidisciplinary investigators from 13 countries reviewed data from published trials performed through cooperative groups, consortia, and single institutions. Data from both prospective and retrospective trials were used to refine the INRC. Monthly international conference calls were held from 2011 to 2015, and consensus was reached through review by working group leadership and the National Cancer Institute Clinical Trials Planning Meeting leadership council. Results Overall response in the revised INRC will integrate tumor response in the primary tumor, soft tissue and bone metastases, and bone marrow. Primary and metastatic soft tissue sites will be assessed using Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST) and iodine-123 (123I) -metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) scans or [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography scans if the tumor is MIBG nonavid. 123I-MIBG scans, or [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography scans for MIBG-nonavid disease, replace technetium-99m diphosphonate bone scintigraphy for osteomedullary metastasis assessment. Bone marrow will be assessed by histology or immunohistochemistry and cytology or immunocytology. Bone marrow with ≤ 5% tumor involvement will be classified as minimal disease. Urinary catecholamine levels will not be included in response assessment. Overall response will be defined as complete response, partial response, minor response, stable disease, or progressive disease. Conclusion These revised criteria will provide a uniform assessment of disease response, improve the interpretability of clinical trial results, and facilitate collaborative trial designs.

Neuroblastoma: A Tough Nut to Crack

Neuroblastoma, an embryonal tumor arising from neural crest-derived progenitor cells, is the most common solid tumor in childhood, with more than 700 cases diagnosed per year in the United States. In the past several decades, significant advances have been made in the treatment of neuroblastoma. Treatment advances reflect improved understanding of the biology of neuroblastoma. Although amplification of MYCN was discovered in the early 1980s, our understanding of neuroblastoma oncogenesis has advanced in the last decade as a result of high-throughput genomic analysis, exome and whole-genome sequencing, genome-wide association studies, and synthetic lethal drug screens. Our refined understanding of neuroblastoma biology and genetics is reflected in improved prognostic stratification and appropriate tailoring of therapy in recent clinical trials. Moreover, for high-risk neuroblastoma, a disease that was uniformly fatal 3 decades ago, recent clinical trials incorporating autologous hematopoietic transplant and immunotherapy utilizing anti-GD2 antibody plus cytokines have shown improved event-free and overall survival. These advances have resulted in a growing population of long-term survivors of neuroblastoma. Examination of the late effects and second malignant neoplasms (SMNs) in both older generations of survivors and more recently treated survivors will inform both design of future trials and surveillance guidelines for long-term follow-up. As a consequence of advances in understanding of the biology of neuroblastoma, successful clinical trials, and refined understanding of the late effects and SMNs of survivors, the promise of precision medicine is becoming a reality for patients with neuroblastoma.

Neuroblastoma

Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial solid tumour occurring in childhood and has a diverse clinical presentation and course depending on the tumour biology. Unique features of these neuroendocrine tumours are the early age of onset, the high frequency of metastatic disease at diagnosis and the tendency for spontaneous regression of tumours in infancy. The most malignant tumours have amplification of the MYCN oncogene (encoding a transcription factor), which is usually associated with poor survival, even in localized disease. Although transgenic mouse models have shown that MYCN overexpression can be a tumour-initiating factor, many other cooperating genes and tumour suppressor genes are still under investigation and might also have a role in tumour development. Segmental chromosome alterations are frequent in neuroblastoma and are associated with worse outcome. The rare familial neuroblastomas are usually associated with germline mutations in ALK, which is mutated in 10-15% of primary tumours, and provides a potential therapeutic target. Risk-stratified therapy has facilitated the reduction of therapy for children with low-risk and intermediate-risk disease. Advances in therapy for patients with high-risk disease include intensive induction chemotherapy and myeloablative chemotherapy, followed by the treatment of minimal residual disease using differentiation therapy and immunotherapy; these have improved 5-year overall survival to 50%. Currently, new approaches targeting the noradrenaline transporter, genetic pathways and the tumour microenvironment hold promise for further improvements in survival and long-term quality of life.

Neuroblastoma (Peripheral neuroblastic tumours)

Peripheral neuroblastic tumours (PNTs), a family of tumours arising in the embryonal remnants of the sympathetic nervous system, account for 7-10% of all tumours in children. In two-thirds of cases, PNTs originate in the adrenal glands or the retroperitoneal ganglia. At least one third present metastases at onset, with bone and bone marrow being the most frequent metastatic sites. Disease extension, MYCN oncogene status and age are the most relevant prognostic factors, and their influence on outcome have been considered in the design of the recent treatment protocols. Consequently, the probability of cure has increased significantly in the last two decades. In children with localised operable disease, surgical resection alone is usually a sufficient treatment, with 3-year event-free survival (EFS) being greater than 85%. For locally advanced disease, primary chemotherapy followed by surgery and/or radiotherapy yields an EFS of around 75%. The greatest problem is posed by children with metastatic disease or amplified MYCN gene, who continue to do badly despite intensive treatments. Ongoing trials are exploring the efficacy of new drugs and novel immunological approaches in order to save a greater number of these patients.

Factors associated with recurrence and survival length following relapse in patients with neuroblastoma

Background:

Despite therapeutic advances, survival following relapse for neuroblastoma patients remains poor. We investigated clinical and biological factors associated with length of progression-free and overall survival following relapse in UK neuroblastoma patients.

Methods:

All cases of relapsed neuroblastoma, diagnosed during 1990–2010, were identified from four Paediatric Oncology principal treatment centres. Kaplan–Meier and Cox regression analyses were used to calculate post-relapse overall survival (PROS), post-relapse progression-free survival (PRPFS) between relapse and further progression, and to investigate influencing factors.

Results:

One hundred eighty-nine cases were identified from case notes, 159 (84.0%) high risk and 17 (9.0%), unresectable, MYCN non-amplified (non-MNA) intermediate risk (IR). For high-risk patients diagnosed >2000, median PROS was 8.4 months (interquartile range (IQR)=3.0–17.4) and median PRPFS was 4.7 months (IQR=2.1–7.1). For IR, unresectable non-MNA patients, median PROS was 11.8 months (IQR 9.0–51.6) and 5-year PROS was 24% (95% CI 7–45%). MYCN amplified (MNA) disease and bone marrow metastases at diagnosis were independently associated with worse PROS for high-risk cases. Eighty percent of high-risk relapses occurred within 2 years of diagnosis compared with 50% of unresectable non-MNA IR disease.

Conclusions:

Patients with relapsed HR neuroblastomas should be treatment stratified according to MYCN status and PRPFS should be the primary endpoint in early phase clinical trials. The failure to salvage the majority of IR neuroblastoma is concerning, supporting investigation of intensification of upfront treatment regimens in this group to determine whether their use would diminish likelihood of relapse.

Serum-Based Quantification of MYCN Gene Amplification in Young Patients with Neuroblastoma: Potential Utility as a Surrogate Biomarker for Neuroblastoma

We previously developed a method for determining MYCN gene amplification status using cell-free DNA fragments released from cancer cells into the blood of patients with neuroblastoma (NB). Here, we analyzed the relationship between MYCN amplification (MNA) status and neuroblastoma prognosis. We screened serum samples from 151 patients with NB for MNA, using real-time quantitative PCR, and compared the results with MYCN status determined using paired tumor samples. We additionally investigated whether MNA status correlates with patient survival. When a cut-off value of 5 was used, serum-based MNA analysis was found to show good sensitivity (86%) and very high specificity (95%). The sensitivities for stage 1 and 2 might be acceptable, even though it is not as good as for stage 3 and 4 (67% for stage 1 and 2, 92% for stage 3, and 87% for stage 4). MNA status correlated with overall survival in our cohort of 82 patients, with survival data available (p < 0.01). The hazard ratio of MNA status was 4.98 in patients diagnosed at less than 18 months of age (95% confidence interval, 1.00–24.78), and 1.41 (95% confidence interval, 0.63–3.14) for those diagnosed at 18 months of age or older. Serum-based MNA analysis is rapid and non-invasive compared with tumor-based MNA analysis, and has potential to predict tumor MNA status. There is still a room to improve the sensitivity of the test for tumors of stages 1 and 2, nonetheless this assay might help to determine therapeutic strategies prior to tumor biopsy, especially for patients with a life-threatening condition, as well as for patients of less than 18 months of age whose risk-grouping and treatment allocation depends on their MNA status.

Bilateral adrenal neuroblastoma in the infant: Is it an image-defined risk factor?

The treatment of neuroblastoma is based on the International Neuroblastoma Risk Group stratification considering life-threatening symptoms, image-defined risk factors (IDRFs), presence and site of metastases, biology, and histopathology. The authors present an infant with bilateral nonmetastatic adrenal neuroblastoma with favorable biology. Both tumors were resectable and without IDRFs, but bilateral resection was considered mutilating, so it was decided to operate one side only. The authors suggest considering bilaterality among IDRFs.

New immunotherapeutic strategies for the treatment of neuroblastoma

The prognosis of high-risk neuroblastoma (NB) is still poor, in spite of aggressive multimodal treatment. Recently, adjuvant immunotherapy with anti-GD2 antibodies combined with IL-2 or GM-CSF has been shown to improve survival. Several other immunotherapy strategies proved efficacy in preclinical models of NB, including different types of vaccines, adoptive cell therapies and combined approaches. The remarkable differences in the immunobiology of syngeneic models and human NB may, at least in part, limit the translation of preclinical therapies to a clinical setting. Nonetheless, several preliminary evidences suggest that new antibodies, cancer vaccines and adoptive transfer of lymphocytes, genetically engineered to acquire NB specificity, may result in clinical benefit, and clinical studies are currently ongoing.

Microarray data analysis of neuroblastoma: Expression of SOX2 downregulates the expression of MYCN

The present study aimed to identify the genes directly or indirectly correlated with the amplification of MYCN in neuroblastoma (NB). Microarray data (GSE53371) were downloaded from Gene Expression Omnibus, and included 10 NB cell lines with MYCN amplification and 10 NB cell lines with normal MYCN copy numbers. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified using the Linear Models for Microarray Data package, and a false discovery rate of <0.05 and |log2FC (fold change)|>1 were selected as cut‑off criteria. Hierarchical clustering analysis and Gene Ontology analysis were respectively performed for the DEGs using the Pheatmap package in R language and The Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery. A protein‑protein interaction network (PPI) was constructed for the DEGs using the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes database. Pathway analysis was performed for the DEGs in the PPI network using the WEB‑based GEne SeT AnaLysis Toolkit. The correlation between MYCN and the key gene associated with MYCN was determined using Pearson's correlation coefficient. In total, 137 downregulated and 35 upregulated DEGs were identified. Functional enrichment analysis indicated that KCNMB4 was involved in the regulation of action potential in neuron term, and the FOS, GLI3 and GLI1 genes were involved in the extracellular matrix‑receptor interaction pathway. The PPI network and correlation analysis revealed that the expression of SOX2 was directly correlated with the expression of MYCN, and the correlation coefficient of SOX2 and MYCN was ‑0.83. Therefore, SOX2, KCNMB4, FOS, GLI3 and GLI1 may be involved in the pathogenesis of NB, with the expression of SOX2 downregulating the expression of MYCN.