Estrogen receptor beta selective ligand 5alpha-Androstane-3beta, 17beta-diol stimulates spermatogonial deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis in rat seminiferous epithelium in vitro

Direct regulation of genes involved in sperm release by estrogen and androgen through their receptors and coregulators

Steroid hormones, estrogen and androgen, control transcription in various reproductive and non-reproductive tissues. Both hormones are known to be important for control of sperm release from the seminiferous epithelium (spermiation), a process characterized by extensive remodeling of actin filaments and endocytosis. Earlier studies with an estrogen (E2)-induced rat model of spermiation failure revealed genes involved in actin remodeling (Arpc1b and Evl) and endocytosis (Picalm, Eea1, and Stx5a) to be differentially regulated. Further, among these genes, Arpc1b and Evl were found to be estrogen-responsive whereas Eea1 and Stx5a were androgen-responsive and Picalm was responsive to both hormones in seminiferous tubule cultures. Yet, the mechanism by which these genes are regulated by estrogen and androgen in the testis was unclear. Here, we report the presence of a functional estrogen response element (ERE) upstream of Arpc1b and Evl genes and androgen response element (ARE) upstream of Picalm, Eea1, and Stx5a genes. Chromatin immunoprecipitation in control versus E2-treated testes revealed significant changes in estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) recruitment along with coregulators to the EREs upstream of Arpc1b and Evl genes and androgen receptor (AR) at AREs upstream of Picalm, Eea1, and Stx5a genes. Enrichment patterns of these EREs/AREs with coregulators, activating and repressing histone modifications along with RNA polymerase II recruitment, correlated with the observed expression patterns of these genes upon E2 treatment. Taken together, our results reveal direct targets of estrogen and androgen in the testes and provide insights into transcriptional control of sperm release by the two steroid hormones.

Effect of estrogen on chick primordial follicle development and activation

Steroid hormones and their receptors play pivotal roles in avian reproduction and development. 17β-estradiol (E₂ ) is an essential mediator in ovarian development. In this study, Day 3 (D3) chicks were injected with E₂ (0.025, 0.25 or 2.5 mg/kg body weight) for 4 days to assess the effects of estrogen on avian follicle development. Morphological analysis showed that treatment of E₂ at 2.5 mg/kg increased the number of growing follicles by 28. 5% and activated follicles by 8.9%, compared with the group. Treatment of E₂ also led to increased diameter and area of three kinds of follicles and oocytes, respectively. However, this stimulating effect of E₂ was inhibited by combined treatment of the estrogen receptor antagonist tamoxifen, resulting in decreased number of the growing follicles by 14.3% and the activated follicles by 5.8%, respectively. Immunohistochemical staining of the proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) revealed that the ratios of the PCNA-positive granulosa and interstitial cells were increased by 14.0% and 21.5%, respectively. Western blot analysis of PCNA confirmed this stimulating effect of E₂ . Expression of ERα mRNAs was elevated by administration of E₂ in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, E- and N-cadherin displayed increased expression after E₂ treatment in vivo and in vitro. In conclusion, E₂ can promote chicken primordial follicle development and activation involving its increased receptor and cadherin production at the early stage of ovarian development.

Revisiting the neural role of estrogen receptor beta in male sexual behavior by conditional mutagenesis

Estradiol derived from neural aromatization of gonadal testosterone plays a key role in the perinatal organization of the neural circuitry underlying male sexual behavior. The aim of this study was to investigate the contribution of neural estrogen receptor (ER) β in estradiol-induced effects without interfering with its peripheral functions. For this purpose, male mice lacking ERβ in the nervous system were generated. Analyses of males in two consecutive tests with a time interval of two weeks showed an effect of experience, but not of genotype, on the latencies to the first mount, intromission, pelvic thrusting and ejaculation. Similarly, there was an effect of experience, but not of genotype, on the number of thrusts and mating length. Neural ERβ deletion had no effect on the ability of males to adopt a lordosis posture in response to male mounts, after castration and priming with estradiol and progesterone. Indeed, only low percentages of both genotypes exhibited a low lordosis quotient. It also did not affect their olfactory preference. Quantification of tyrosine hydroxylase- and kisspeptin-immunoreactive neurons in the preoptic area showed unaffected sexual dimorphism of both populations in mutants. By contrast, the number of androgen receptor- and ERα-immunoreactive cells was significantly increased in the bed nucleus of stria terminalis of mutant males. These data show that neural ERβ does not play a crucial role in the organization and activation of the neural circuitry underlying male sexual behavior. These discrepancies with the phenotype of global ERβ knockout models are discussed.

Expression of steroidogenesis-related genes in murine male germ cells

For decades, only few tissues and cell types were defined as steroidogenic, capable of de novo steroid synthesis from cholesterol. However, with the refinement of detection methods, several tissues have now been added to the list of steroidogenic tissues. Besides their critical role as long-range acting hormones, steroids are also playing more discreet roles as local mediators and signaling molecules within the tissues they are produced. In testis, steroidogenesis is carried out by the Leydig cells through a broad network of proteins, mediating cholesterol delivery to CYP11A1, the first cytochrome of the steroidogenic cascade, and the sequential action of enzymes insuring the production of active steroids, the main one being testosterone. The knowledge that male germ cells can be directly regulated by steroids and that they express several steroidogenesis-related proteins led us to hypothesize that germ cells could produce steroids, acting as autocrine, intracrine and juxtacrine modulators, as a way to insure synchronized progression within spermatogenic cycles, and preventing inappropriate cell behaviors between neighboring cells. Gene expression and protein analyses of mouse and rat germ cells from neonatal gonocytes to spermatozoa showed that most steroidogenesis-associated genes are expressed in germ cells, showing cell type-, spermatogenic cycle-, and age-specific expression profiles. Highly expressed genes included genes involved in steroidogenesis and other cell functions, such as Acbd1 and 3, Tspo and Vdac1-3, and genes involved in fatty acids metabolism or synthesis, including Hsb17b4 10 and 12, implying broader roles than steroid synthesis in germ cells. These results support the possibility of an additional level of regulation of spermatogenesis exerted between adjacent germ cells.

Estrogen and androgen regulate actin-remodeling and endocytosis-related genes during rat spermiation

Spermiation, the sperm release process, is imperative to male fertility and reproduction. Morphologically, it is characterized by removal of atypical adherens junctions called ectoplasmic specializations, and formation of transient endocytic devices called tubulobulbar complexes requiring cytoskeleton remodeling and recruitment of proteins needed for endocytosis. Earlier, estrogen administration to adult male rats was seen to cause spermiation failure due to disruption of tubulobulbar complexes. This was accompanied by reduction in intratesticular testosterone levels and increase in intratesticular estrogen along with deregulation of genes involved in cytoskeleton remodeling (Arpc1b, Evl and Capg) and endocytosis (Picalm, Eea1 and Stx5a). In the present study, we aim to understand the role of estrogen and androgen in regulating these genes independently using seminiferous tubule culture system treated with estrogen, androgen or agonists and antagonists of estrogen receptors. We find that transcripts of Arpc1b, Evl and Picalm are responsive to estrogen while those of Picalm, Eea1 and Stx5a are responsive to androgen. We also find that the estrogen regulation of Arpc1b and Evl is mediated through estrogen receptor β and that of Picalm occurs through estrogen receptors α and β. Localization of these proteins at or in the vicinity of tubulobulbar complexes reveals that ARPC1B, EVL, PICALM, EEA1 and STX5A seem to be involved in spermiation. Thus, estrogen and androgen regulate specific genes in seminiferous tubules that could play a role in spermiation.

Oestrogens as apoptosis regulators in mammalian testis: angels or devils?

In the mammalian testis, spermatogenesis is a highly coordinated process of germ cell development, which ends with the release of ‘mature’ spermatozoa. The fine regulation of spermatogenesis is strictly dependent on sex steroid hormones, which orchestrate the cellular and molecular events underlying normal development of germ cells. Sex steroids actions also rely on the control of germ cell survival, and the programmed cell death by apoptosis has been indicated as a critical process in regulating the size and quality of the germ line. Recently, oestrogens have emerged as important regulators of germ cell fate. However, the beneficial or detrimental effects of oestrogens in spermatogenesis are controversial, with independent reports arguing for their role as cell survival factors or as apoptosis-inducers. The dual behaviour of oestrogens, shifting from ‘angels to devils’ is supported by the clinical findings of increased oestrogens levels in serum and intratesticular milieu of idiopathic infertile men. This review aims to discuss the available information concerning the role of oestrogens in the control of germ cell death and summarises the signalling mechanisms driven oestrogen-induced apoptosis. The present data represent a valuable basis for the clinical management of hyperoestrogenism-related infertility and provide a rationale for the use of oestrogen-target therapies in male infertility.

Immunoexpression of aromatase and estrogen receptors β in stem spermatogonia of bullfrogs indicates a role of estrogen in the seasonal spermatogonial mitotic activity

Bullfrog stem spermatogonia, also named primordial germ cells (PGCs), show strong testosterone immunolabeling in winter, but no or weak testosterone immunoexpression in summer. Thus, the role of testosterone in these cells needs to be clarified. In this study, we proposed to evaluate whether PGCs express aromatase and estrogen receptors, and verify a possible role of estrogen in PGCs seasonal proliferation. Testes of male adult bullfrogs, collected in winter (WG) and summer (SG), were fixed and embedded in historesin, for quantitative analysis, or paraffin for immunohistochemistry (IHC). The number of haematoxylin/eosin stained PGCs/lobular area was obtained. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), aromatase, estrogen receptor β (ERβ) and PCNA/ERβ double immunolabeling were detected by IHC. The number of PCNA-positive PGCs and the histological score (HSCORE) of aromatase and ERβ immunolabeled PGCs were obtained. Although the number of PGCs increased significantly in WG, a high number of PCNA-positive PGCs was observed in summer. Moreover, aromatase and ERβ HSCORE was higher in SG than WG. The results indicate that PGCs express a seasonal proliferative activity; the low mitotic activity in winter is related to the maximal limit of germ cells which can be supported in the large lobules. In SG, the increased ERβ and aromatase HSCORE suggests that testosterone is converted into estrogen from winter to summer. Moreover, the parallelism between the high PGCs mitotic activity and ERβ immunoexpression suggest a participation of estrogen in the control of the PGCs seasonal proliferative activity which guarantee the formation of new germ cysts from summer to next autumn.

Estrogen receptor β agonists affect growth and gene expression of human breast cancer cell lines

Expression of estrogen receptor β (ERβ) has been described to reduce growth of cancer cell lines derived from hormone-dependent tumors, like breast cancer. In this study we tested to what extent two ERβ agonists, androgen derivative 3β-Adiol and flavonoid Liquiritigenin, would affect growth and gene expression of different ERβ-positive human breast cancer cell lines. Under standard cell culture conditions, we observed 3β-Adiol to inhibit growth of MCF-7 cells in a dose-dependent manner, whereas growth of BT-474 and MCF-10A cells was suppressed by the maximum concentration (100 nM) only. When treated in serum-free medium, all cell lines except of MDA-MB-231 were responsive to 1 nM 3β-Adiol, and ZR75-1 cells exhibited a dose-dependent antiproliferative response. Providing putative mechanisms underlying the observed growth-inhibitory effect, expression of Ki-67 or cyclins A2 and B1 was downregulated after 3β-Adiol treatment in all responsive lines. In contrast, treatment with lower doses of Liquiritigenin did not affect growth. In MCF-7 cells, the highest dose of this flavonoid exerted proliferative effects accompanied by increased expression of cyclin B1, PR and PS2, indicating unspecific activation of ERα. In conclusion, the ERβ agonists tested exerted distinct concentration-dependent and cell line-specific effects on growth and gene expression. The observed inhibitory effects of 3β-Adiol on breast cancer cell growth encourage further studies on the potential of this and other ERβ agonists as targeted drugs for breast cancer therapy.

G protein-coupled receptor 30 mediates estrogen-induced proliferation of primordial germ cells via EGFR/Akt/β-catenin signaling pathway

In vertebrates, estrogens are required for the normal development and function of postnatal gonads. However, it remains unclear whether estrogens are able to modulate development of the fetal germ cells. Here, we show that, unexpectedly, chicken primordial germ cells (PGC) lacking estrogen receptor α/β still proliferate in response to 17β-estradiol (E(2)). This is due to the capacity of G protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30), existing on PGC, to directly bind E(2). Knockdown experiments suggest that GPR30 is required for E(2)-stimulated PGC proliferation. Furthermore, this estrogen-induced activation of GPR30 is revealed to occur through the Gβγ-subunit protein-dependent and through the matrix metalloproteinase-dependent transactivation of the epidermal growth factor receptor. Epidermal growth factor receptor activation results in a series of intracellular events, including activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/serine-threonine kinase/β-catenin pathway, which are followed by the induction of c-fos, c-myc, cyclin D1/E, and B-cell lymphoma 2 expression, and the inhibition of B-cell lymphoma 2-associated X protein expression and caspase3/9 activity. This eventually leads to decreased apoptosis and increased PGC proliferation. Collectively, these findings offer novel insights into the dynamic mechanism of estrogen action on PGC proliferation and suggest that E(2)/GPR30 signaling might play an important role in regulating fetal germ cell development, particularly at the stage before sexual differentiation.

TEX11 modulates germ cell proliferation by competing with estrogen receptor β for the binding to HPIP

Klinefelter syndrome (KS), characterized by the presence of more than one X-chromosome in men, is a major genetic cause of male infertility. Germ cell degeneration in KS patients is thought to be the consequences of overexpression of some genes on the X-chromosome. However, the identity of these genes and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Testis-expressed 11 (TEX11) is an X-chromosome-encoded germ-cell-specific protein that is expressed most abundantly in spermatogonia and early spermatocytes in the testes. In our search for TEX11-interacting partners using the yeast two-hybrid system, we identified hematopoietic pre-B cell leukemia transcription factor-interacting protein (HPIP), which anchors estrogen receptors (ER) to the cytoskeleton and modulates their functions. We found that mouse spermatogonial stem cells expressed Tex11, Hpip, and Esr2 but not Esr1. In cultured cells, TEX11 competed with ERβ for binding to HPIP. Upon treatment with 17β-estradiol or an ERβ agonist diarylpropionitrile, TEX11 promoted the nuclear translocation of ERβ and enhanced its transcriptional activities. On the other hand, TEX11 suppressed the nongenomic activities of ERβ in the cytoplasm, as indicated by reduced phosphorylation of AKT and ERK signaling molecules. Overexpression of TEX11 in mouse germ-cell-derived GC-1 and GC-2 cells suppressed the cell proliferation and the expression of cFos, Ccnd1, and Ccnb1 that were stimulated by 17β-estradiol or diarylpropionitrile and elevated the expression level of the proapoptotic Bax gene. The negative effect of TEX11 on cell proliferation suggests that increased expression of TEX11 in the germ cells may partially contribute to the spermatogenic defect observed in KS patients.

Triiodothyronine modulates initiation of spermatogenesis in rats depending on treatment timing and blood level of the hormone

Triiodothyronine (T3) stimulates spermatogenic onset but the influence of T3 on spermatogonia development is unknown. The aim of the study was to investigate the role of T3 for both processes simultaneously. Male rats were given daily injections of 100 μg T3/kg body weight or vehicle from birth until postnatal day (pnd) 5 and euthanized on pnd 6 (short T3-sT3). Other rats, euthanized on pnd 16, were treated either transiently with T3 (tT3) during the initial 5 days or continuously until pnd 15 (cT3). sT3 was found to increase gonocyte differentiation, spermatogonia number, cell degeneration and proliferation. tT3 increased serum T3 level and spermatogonial development to adult values precociously, but cell degeneration or proliferation were not affected. cT3 increased serum T3 together with cell degeneration and proliferation, but cell number was not affected. In conclusion, T3 may modulate spermatogonial development quantitatively depending on treatment timing and blood level of the hormone.

Estrogen-regulated genes in rat testes and their relationship to recovery of spermatogenesis after irradiation

Despite numerous observations of the effects of estrogens on spermatogenesis, identification of estrogen-regulated genes in the testis is limited. Using rats in which irradiation had completely blocked spermatogonial differentiation, we previously showed that testosterone suppression with gonadotropin-releasing hormone-antagonist acyline and the antiandrogen flutamide stimulated spermatogenic recovery and that addition of estradiol (E2) to this regimen accelerated this recovery. We report here the global changes in testicular cell gene expression induced by the E2 treatment. By minimizing the changes in other hormones and using concurrent data on regulation of the genes by these hormones, we were able to dissect the effects of estrogen on gene expression, independent of gonadotropin or testosterone changes. Expression of 20 genes, largely in somatic cells, was up- or downregulated between 2- and 5-fold by E2. The unexpected and striking enrichment of transcripts not corresponding to known genes among the E2-downregulated probes suggested that these might represent noncoding mRNAs; indeed, we have identified several as miRNAs and their potential target genes in this system. We propose that genes for which expression levels are altered in one direction by irradiation and in the opposite direction by both testosterone suppression and E2 treatment are candidates for controlling the block in differentiation. Several genes, including insulin-like 3 (Insl3), satisfied those criteria. If they are indeed involved in the inhibition of spermatogonial differentiation, they may be candidate targets for treatments to enhance recovery of spermatogenesis following gonadotoxic exposures, such as those resulting from cancer therapy.

Excessive ovarian production of nerve growth factor elicits granulosa cell apoptosis by setting in motion a tumor necrosis factor α/stathmin-mediated death signaling pathway

Excessive nerve growth factor (NGF) production by the ovary, achieved via a transgenic approach, results in arrested antral follicle growth, reduced ovulatory capacity, and a predisposition to cyst formation in response to mildly elevated LH levels. Two salient features in these mutant mice (termed 17NF) are an elevated production of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP(4)), testosterone, and estradiol (E(2)) in response to gonadotropins, and an increased frequency of granulosa cell (GC) apoptosis. In this study, we show that the increase in steroidal response is associated with enhanced expression of Cyp17a1, Hsd17b, and Cyp19a1, which encode the enzymes catalyzing the synthesis of 17-OHP(4), testosterone, and E(2) respectively. Using a proteomic approach, we identified stathmin (STMN1), as a protein that is overproduced in 17NF ovaries. In its phosphorylated state, STMN1 mediates a cell death signal initiated by tumor necrosis factor α (TNF). STMN1 is expressed in GCs and excessive NGF increases its abundance as well as that of its forms phosphorylated at serine (Ser) 16, 25, and 38. TNF synthesis is also increased in 17NF ovaries, and this change is abolished by blocking neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptors. Inhibiting TNF actions in vivo by administering a soluble TNF receptor prevented the increase in total and phosphorylated STMN1 production, as well as GC apoptosis in NGF-overproducing ovaries. These results indicate that an excess of NGF in the ovary promotes steroidogenesis by enhancing the expression of enzyme genes involved in 17-OHP(4), testosterone, and E(2) synthesis, and causes GC apoptosis by activating a TNF/ STMN1-mediated cell death pathway.

Testosterone and oestradiol in concert protect seminiferous tubule maturation against inhibition by GnRH-antagonist

Oestradiol enhances follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) action on seminiferous tubule maturation, but the relative involvement of oestradiol and testosterone remains unclear. This study compares the influences of oestrogen and androgen in FSH and testosterone-deficient rats. Animals were injected daily GnRH-antagonist alone (Ant) or combined with 17β-oestradiol benzoate (EB), or testosterone propionate (TP), or both from post-natal day (pnd) 5 to 15. Hormone levels, tubule growth, cell numbers, germ cell apoptosis and proliferation, and Sertoli cell maturation were evaluated on pnd 16. Ant decreased serum FSH and testosterone levels to ∼60% and ∼50% of control values, respectively, and decreased tubule growth, Sertoli cell number and maturation. Germ cell number declined by apoptosis. Co-administration of EB stimulated spermatogonia proliferation and maintained FSH levels (86% of control). Tubule growth, Sertoli cell number and spermatocyte apoptosis remained normal after TP co-administration, but Sertoli cell maturation, germ cell number and spermatogonia survival were reduced. Co-administration of EB with TP prevented all inhibitions. In conclusion, administration of oestradiol with testosterone, but neither one alone, protected seminiferous tubule maturation against inhibition caused by Ant-induced disruption. Oestrogen was involved in stimulating germ cell proliferation and the maintenance of Sertoli cell maturation, whereas androgen affected seminiferous tubule growth and spermatocyte survival.

The contribution of lower vertebrate animal models in human reproduction research

Many advances have been carried out on the estrogens, GnRH and endocannabinoid system that have impact in the reproductive field. Indeed, estrogens, the generally accepted female hormones, have performed an unsuspected role in male sexual functions thanks to studies on non-mammalian vertebrates. Similarly, these animal models have provided important contributions to the identification of several GnRH ligand and receptor variants and their possible involvement in sexual behavior and gonadal function regulation. Moreover, the use of non-mammalian animal models has contributed to a better comprehension about the endocannabinoid system action in several mammalian reproductive events. We wish to highlight here how non-mammalian vertebrate animal model research contributes to advancements with implications on human health as well as providing a phylogenetic perspective on the evolution of reproductive systems in vertebrates.

Expression of P-450 aromatase, estrogen receptor α and β, and α-inhibin in the fetal baboon testis after estrogen suppression during the second half of gestation

Expression of the molecules that modulate the synthesis and action of estrogen in, or reflect function of, Sertoli cells was determined in the fetal testis of baboons in which estrogen levels were suppressed in the second half of gestation to determine whether this may account for the previously reported alteration in fetal testis germ cell development. P-450 aromatase, estrogen receptor (ER) β, and α-inhibin protein assessed by immunocytochemistry was abundantly expressed in Sertoli cells of the fetal baboon testis, but unaltered in baboons in which estrogen levels were suppressed by letrozole administration. Moreover, P-450 aromatase and ERα and β mRNA levels, assessed by real-time RT-PCR, were similar in germ/Sertoli cells and interstitial cells isolated from the fetal testis of untreated and letrozole-treated baboons. These results indicate that expression of the proteins that modulate the formation and action of estrogen in, and function of, Sertoli cells is not responsible for the changes in germ cell development in the fetal testis of estrogen-deprived baboons.

The androgen receptor governs the execution, but not programming, of male sexual and territorial behaviors

Testosterone and estrogen are essential for male behaviors in vertebrates. How these two signaling pathways interact to control masculinization of the brain and behavior remains to be established. Circulating testosterone activates the androgen receptor (AR) and also serves as the source of estrogen in the brain. We have used a genetic strategy to delete AR specifically in the mouse nervous system. This approach permits us to determine the function of AR in sexually dimorphic behaviors in males while maintaining circulating testosterone levels within the normal range. We find that AR mutant males exhibit masculine sexual and territorial displays, but they have striking deficits in specific components of these behaviors. Taken together with the surprisingly limited expression of AR in the developing brain, our findings indicate that testosterone acts as a precursor to estrogen to masculinize the brain and behavior, and signals via AR to control the levels of male behavioral displays.

Minireview: Estrogen receptor-beta: mechanistic insights from recent studies

The discovery of estrogen receptor-beta (ERbeta) in 1996 stimulated great interest in the physiological roles and molecular mechanisms of ERbeta action. We now know that ERbeta plays a major role in mediating estrogen action in several tissues and organ systems, including the ovary, cardiovascular system, brain, and the immune system, and that ERbeta and ERalpha generally play distinct physiological roles in the body. Although significant progress has been made toward understanding the molecular mechanisms of ERbeta action, particularly in vitro, there remains a large gap in our understanding of the mechanisms by which ERbeta elicits its biological functions in a true physiological context.

Interdependence of platelet-derived growth factor and estrogen-signaling pathways in inducing neonatal rat testicular gonocytes proliferation

We previously found that platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and 17beta-estradiol stimulate gonocyte proliferation in a dose-dependent, nonadditive manner. In the present study, we report that gonocytes express RAF1, MAP2K1, and MAPK1/3. Inhibition of RAF1 and MAP2K1/2, but not phosphoinositide-3-kinase, blocked PDGF-induced proliferation. AG-370, an inhibitor of PDGF receptor kinase activity, suppressed not only PDGF-induced proliferation but also that induced by 17beta-estradiol. In addition, RAF1 and MAP2K1/2 inhibitors blocked 17beta-estradiol-activated proliferation. The estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182780 inhibited both the effects of 17beta-estradiol and PDGF. PDGF lost its stimulatory effect when steroid-depleted serum or no serum was used. Similarly, 17beta-estradiol did not induce gonocyte proliferation in the absence of PDGF. The xenoestrogens genistein, bisphenol A, and DES, but not coumestrol, stimulated gonocyte proliferation in a dose-dependent and PDGF-dependent manner similarly to 17beta-estradiol. Their effects were blocked by ICI 182780, suggesting that they act via the estrogen receptor. AG-370 blocked genistein and bisphenol A effects, demonstrating their requirement of PDGF receptor activation in a manner similar to 17beta-estradiol. These results demonstrate the interdependence of PDGF and estrogen pathways in stimulating in vitro gonocyte proliferation, suggesting that this critical step in gonocyte development might be regulated in vivo by the coordinated action of PDGF and estrogen. Thus, the inappropriate exposure of gonocytes to xenoestrogens might disrupt the crosstalk between the two pathways and potentially interfere with gonocyte development.

Estrogen receptors and function in the male reproductive system

A substantial advance in our understanding on the estrogen signaling occurred in the last decade. Estrogens interact with two receptors, ESR1 and ESR2, also known as ERα and ERβ, respectively. ESR1 and ESR2 belong to the nuclear receptor family of transcription factors. In addition to the well established transcriptional effects, estrogens can mediate rapid signaling, triggered within seconds or minutes. These rapid effects can be mediated by ESRs or the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor GPER, also known as GPR30. The effects of estrogen on cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis are often mediated by growth factors. The understanding of the cross-talk between androgen, estrogen and growth factors signaling pathways is therefore essential to understand the physiopathological mechanisms of estrogen action. In this review we focused on recent discoveries about the nature of the estrogen receptors, and on the signaling and function of estrogen in the male reproductive system.

Estrogen promotes germ cell and seminiferous tubule development in the baboon fetal testis

The foundation for development of the male reproduction system occurs in utero, but relatively little is known about the regulation of primate fetal testis maturation. Our laboratories have shown that estrogen regulates key aspects of the physiology of pregnancy and fetal development. Therefore, in the present study, we characterized and quantified germ cells and Sertoli cells in the fetal baboon testis in late normal gestation (i.e., Day 165; term is 184 days) and in baboons administered the aromatase inhibitor letrozole throughout the second half of gestation to assess the impact of endogenous estrogen on fetal testis development. In untreated baboons, the seminiferous cords were comprised of undifferentiated (i.e., type A) spermatogonia classified by their morphology as dark (Ad) or pale (Ap), gonocytes (precursors of type A spermatogonia), unidentified cells (UI), and Sertoli cells. In letrozole-treated baboons, serum estradiol levels were decreased by 95%. The number per milligram of fetal testis (x10(4)) of Ad spermatogonia (0.42 +/- 0.11) was 45% lower (P = 0.03), and that of gonocytes (0.58 +/- 0.06) and UI (0.45 +/- 0.12) was twofold greater (P < 0.01 and P = 0.06, respectively), than in untreated baboons. Moreover, in the seminiferous cords of estrogen-deprived baboons, the basement membrane appeared fragmented, the germ cells and Sertoli cells appeared disorganized, and vacuoles were present. We conclude that endogenous estrogen promotes fetal testis development and that the changes in the germ cell population in the estrogen-deprived baboon fetus may impair spermatogenesis and fertility in adulthood.

Estrogens are involved in seasonal regulation of spermatogenesis and sperm maturation in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)

Roe deer (a seasonal breeder, rut: July to August) is a well characterized model for studying the seasonal regulation of testicular activity. However, not much is known about the impact of estrogens on seasonally determined sperm production. We therefore explored the time and cell type specific expression of estrogen receptors and of enzymes involved in steroid biosynthesis in roe deer testicular parenchyma and in the epididymis. Every second month during the entire seasonal cycle five roe bucks were castrated (n=30). Estrogen receptor (ER) alpha, ERbeta and the enzymes P450Aromatase and P450C17 were localized immunohistochemically. The expression levels of ERalpha, ERbeta and P450Aromatase were evaluated by semi-quantitative Western blot. Contrary to the enzyme required for androgen production (P450C17), which is expectedly located only in the Leydig cells and shows an expression increase towards rutting season, a seasonal expression difference of the enzyme required for the conversion into oestradiol (P450Aromatase) is visible only in the epididymis. In the testis, ERalpha expression shows a striking dependency on tubular cell composition, and the single cell expression activity increases towards rut. This implicates that estrogens are directly involved in the regulation of spermatogenesis in the roe buck. In the epididymis, expression of ERalpha is seasonally determined particularly in the ductuli efferentes. ERbeta was detected throughout the year with no distinct dependency on season or the stages of germinative epithelium cycle. We conclude that estrogens in the roe buck influence the seasonally determined sperm production predominantly by the regulated expression of ERalpha.

Antidepressant-like effect of 17beta-estradiol: involvement of dopaminergic, serotonergic, and (or) sigma-1 receptor systems

17beta-estradiol has been reported to possess antidepressant-like activity in animal models of depression, although the mechanism for its effect is not well understood. The present study is an effort in this direction to explore the mechanism of the antidepressant-like effect of 17beta-estradiol in a mouse model(s) of behavioral depression (despair behavior). Despair behavior, expressed as helplessness to escape from a situation (immobility period), as in a forced swim test in which the animals are forced to swim for a total of 6 min, was recorded. The antiimmobility effects (antidepressant-like) of 17beta-estradiol were compared with those of standard drugs like venlafaxine (16 mg/kg, i.p.). 17beta-estradiol produced a U-shaped effect in decreasing the immobility period. It had no effect on locomotor activity of the animal. The antidepressant-like effect was comparable to that of venlafaxine (16 mg/kg, i.p.). 17beta-estradiol also exhibited a similar profile of antidepressant action in the tail suspension test. When coadministered with other antidepressant drugs, 17beta-estradiol (5 microg/kg, i.p.) potentiated the antiimmobility effect of subeffective doses of fluoxetine (5 mg/kg, i.p.), venlafaxine (2 mg/kg, i.p.), or bupropion (10 mg/kg, i.p.), but not of desipramine (5 mg/kg, i.p.) or tranylcypromine (2 mg/kg, i.p.), in the forced swim test. The reduction in the immobility period elicited by 17beta-estradiol (20 microg/kg, i.p.) was reversed by haloperidol (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.; a D(2) dopamine receptor antagonist), SCH 23390 (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.; a D(1) dopamine receptor antagonist), and sulpiride (5 mg/kg, i.p.; a specific dopamine D(2) receptor antagonist). In mice pretreated with (+)-pentazocine (2.5 mg/kg, i.p.; a high-affinity sigma-1 receptor agonist), 17beta-estradiol (5 microg/kg, i.p.) produced a synergistic effect. In contrast, pretreatment with progesterone (10 mg/kg, s.c.; a sigma-1 receptor antagonist neurosteroid), rimcazole (5 mg/kg, i.p.; another sigma-1 receptor antagonist), or BD 1047 (1 mg/kg, i.p.; a novel sigma-1 receptor antagonist) reversed the antiimmobility effects of 17beta-estradiol (20 microg/kg, i.p.). Similarly, in mice pretreated with a subthreshold dose of 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT, a 5-HT1A serotonin receptor agonist), 17beta-estradiol (5 microg/kg, i.p.) produced an antidepressant-like effect. These findings demonstrate that 17beta-estradiol exerted an antidepressant-like effect preferentially through the modulation of dopaminergic and serotonergic receptors. This action may also involve the participation of sigma-1 receptors.