Interaction between ESR1 and HLA-DR2 may contribute to the development of MS in women

The Impact of Gonadal Hormones on the Expression of Human Neurological Disorders

The effects of gonadal steroids on neurological well-being and disease constitute a rich and rapidly expanding area of basic and clinical neuroscience. Gonadal hormones exert potent effects on monoaminergic, cholinergic and peptidergic pathways as well as neurosteroidogenesis which, in turn, impact normal brain organization and function. A spectrum of human neurological conditions are influenced by hormonal fluctuations associated with the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, the menopause and use of oral contraceptives. An appreciation of these relationships may facilitate the development of specific hormonal and anti-hormonal therapies for neurological disorders as disparate as catamenial epilepsy and acute intermittent porphyria.

Gut microbiome and the risk factors in central nervous system autoimmunity

Humans are colonized after birth by microbial organisms that form a heterogeneous community, collectively termed microbiota. The genomic pool of this macro-community is named microbiome. The gut microbiota is essential for the complete development of the immune system, representing a binary network in which the microbiota interact with the host providing important immune and physiologic function and conversely the bacteria protect themselves from host immune defense. Alterations in the balance of the gut microbiome due to a combination of environmental and genetic factors can now be associated with detrimental or protective effects in experimental autoimmune diseases. These gut microbiome alterations can unbalance the gastrointestinal immune responses and influence distal effector sites leading to CNS disease including both demyelination and affective disorders. The current range of risk factors for MS includes genetic makeup and environmental elements. Of interest to this review is the consistency between this range of MS risk factors and the gut microbiome. We postulate that the gut microbiome serves as the niche where different MS risk factors merge, thereby influencing the disease process.

Role of gender in multiple sclerosis: clinical effects and potential molecular mechanisms

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is more prevalent in females than males, and this female predominance is increasing as time goes by. Additionally, gender appears to play critical roles in development, progression and treatment of MS, and is therefore an aspect that should always be considered in the design and interpretation of research and clinical trials for MS. In this review, factors that could potentially explain the gender-biased observations in MS are discussed. These include sex-specific differences between the male and female immune systems and nervous systems, genetic and epigenetic or environmental-related effects, the effects of gonadal hormones, and materno-fetal interactions.

Microarray analysis in B cells among siblings with/without MS - role for transcription factor TCF2

BACKGROUND

We investigated if global gene expression and transcription networks in B-lymphocytes of siblings with multiple sclerosis (MS) were different from healthy siblings.

RESULTS

Using virus-transformed immortalized B cells and human whole genome bioarrays with validation using RT-qPCR, we found that in siblings with MS, genes for CXCL10, serpin B1 and FUT4 were up regulated whereas CDC5L, TNFRSF19 and HLA-DR were down regulated, among others; transcription analysis showed two intersecting clusters of transcriptional factors - the larger, governed by the upregulated transcription factor 2 (TCF2) and the smaller network regulated by the downregulated CDC5L.

CONCLUSION

No study has linked TCF2 to MS and to better understand the role of TCF2 in MS, studies in larger cohorts are required.

Recent advances in genetic analysis of multiple sclerosis: genetic associations and therapeutic implications

Epidemiological studies have confirmed that genetic factors are a key component in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) and that those determining MS susceptibility have been extensively studied. Many papers have been published regarding the heritable differences useful in genetic studies; these include variations in DNA, such as single-nucleotide polymorphisms, microsatellites and insertion/deletion polymorphisms. However, to date, among other regions, HLA is the only region confirmed to possess genes that determine MS susceptibility. In this article, we review the progress during the last 5 years in the studies on the susceptibility genes and the pharmacogenetics of MS. Newer techniques and methods of analysis will hopefully result in better screening of individuals who are at highest risk and novel treatments.

Allelic variation investigation of the estrogen receptor within an Australian multiple sclerosis population

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a central nervous system (CNS) chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease leading to various neurological disabilities. The disorder is more prevalent for women with a ratio of 3:2 female to male.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate variation within the estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) polymorphism gene in an Australian MS case-control population using two intragenic restriction fragment length polymorphisms; the G594A located in exon 8 detected with the BtgI restriction enzyme and T938C located in intron 1, detected with PvuII. One hundred and ten Australian MS patients were studied, with patients classified clinically as Relapsing Remitting MS (RR-MS), Secondary Progressive MS (SP-MS) or Primary Progressive MS (PP-MS). Also, 110 age, sex and ethnicity matched controls were investigated as a comparative group. No significant difference in the allelic distribution frequency was found between the case and control groups for the ESR1 PvuII (P = 0.50) and Btg1 (P = 0.45) marker. Our results do not support a role for these two ESR1 markers in multiple sclerosis susceptibility, however other markers within ESR1 should not be excluded for potential involvement in the disorder.

Sex hormones: a role in the control of multiple sclerosis?

Several lines of evidence suggest that gender affects the susceptibility and course of multiple sclerosis. A higher disease prevalence, as well as an overall better prognosis, in women than men is observed. This sex dimorphism may be explained by the effect of sex hormones on brain damage and repair mechanisms. Experimental, clinical and MRI evidence confirms a pathogenetic link between sex hormones and multiple sclerosis, also suggesting sex-specific effects of hormones in multiple sclerosis pathology and therapy. A gender-based approach to multiple sclerosis could provide further benefits for its treatment and management.

Gene expression profiles in Finnish twins with multiple sclerosis

Background

Since genetic alterations influencing susceptibility to multiple sclerosis (MS), the most common autoimmune demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS), are as yet poorly understood, the purpose of this study was to identify genes responsible for MS by studying monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs discordant for MS.

Methods

In order to identify genes involved in MS development, the gene expression profiles in blood mononuclear cells obtained from eight MZ twin pairs discordant for MS were analyzed by cDNA microarray technology detecting the expression of 8 300 genes. The twins were collected from the Finnish Twin Cohort Study and both affected subjects and their healthy siblings underwent neurological evaluation and cerebral and spinal magnetic resonance imaging. Gene expressions were confirmed by relative quantitative reverse transcription PCR.

Results

It appeared that 25 genes were at least two-fold up-regulated and 15 genes down-regulated in 25% (2/8) of twins with MS when compared to their healthy siblings. Moreover, 6/25 genes were up-regulated in 40% of MS twins and one gene, interferon alpha-inducible protein (clone IFI-6-16) (G1P3), in 50% of them. The six most constantly expressed genes are (1) G1P3, (2) POU domain, class 3, transcription factor 1, (3) myxovirus resistance 2, (4) lysosomal-associated multispanning membrane protein-5, (5) hemoglobin alpha 2 and (6) hemoglobin beta.

Conclusion

Over two-fold up-regulation of these six genes in almost half of MZ twins with MS suggests their role in MS pathogenesis. Studies using MZ MS twins obtained from genetically homogeneous population offer a unique opportunity to explore the genetic nature of MS.

Multiple sclerosis genetics: leaving no stone unturned

Compelling epidemiologic and molecular data indicate that genes play a primary role in determining who is at risk for developing multiple sclerosis (MS), how the disease progresses, and how someone responds to therapy. The genetic component of MS etiology is believed to result from the action of allelic variants in several genes. Their incomplete penetrance and moderate individual effect probably reflects epistatic interactions, post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms, and significant environmental influences. Equally significant, it is also likely that locus heterogeneity exists, whereby specific genes influence susceptibility and pathogenesis in some individuals but not in others. With the aid of novel analytical algorithms, the combined study of genomic, transcriptional, proteomic, and phenotypic information in well-controlled study groups will define a useful conceptual model of pathogenesis and a framework for understanding the mechanisms of action of existing therapies for this disorder, as well as the rationale for novel curative strategies.

Adult gonadal hormones selectively regulate sexually dimorphic quantitative traits observed in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis

Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) and multiple sclerosis (MS) are characterized by strong sexual dimorphisms, many of which may be due to genetically controlled sex hormone effects on the immune system, the central nervous system (CNS), or both. In the present study we used 487 gonadectomized and 376 intact age-matched F(2) mice generated through crosses of B10.S/SgMcdJ and SJL/J mice to assess the role of adult gonadal hormones in regulating clinical and histopathological quantitative traits (QT) associated with EAE in the context of genetic heterogeneity. We found that gonadectomy resulted in different effects, depending on the QT and the sex of the mouse. Ovariectomized mice on average had lower cumulative clinical disease scores, shorter duration of clinical signs, and increased peak disease scores. This trend was accompanied by a significant increase in the incidence of acute, progressive EAE which is more frequently seen in intact and orchiectomized males. Although spinal cord (SC) inflammation was the better predictor of clinical signs of EAE in both sexes, ovariectomized females had considerable reductions in nearly all histopathological QT in both the brain and SC. Orchiectomy resulted in modestly significant increases in disease severity and peak score and earlier onset of clinical signs. With the exception of SC demyelination and lesion scores, orchiectomy had no effect on histopathological QT. Importantly, gonadectomy reduced but did not completely abolish any of the sexually dimorphic clinical QT seen in intact mice. It did however, lead to a significant sexual dimorphism in incidence and severity not seen in intact mice. For histopathological QT, no sexual dimorphism was detected for brain lesions in either intact or gonadectomized mice. In contrast, SC histopathological QT exhibited significant sexual dimorphisms, which were impacted by gonadectomy. The results from this study indicate that within the context of genetic heterogeneity, circulating gonadal hormones influence both clinical and histopathological QT in this model of MS, but they do not solely account for the sexual dimorphisms seen in these traits. Thus, additional mechanisms must play a role in regulating gender differences in autoimmune disease of the CNS.

Lack of association between estrogen receptor 1 gene polymorphisms and multiple sclerosis in southern Italy in humans

Estrogen receptor 1 gene polymorphisms (ESR1) have been found to be associated with multiple sclerosis (MS) in both Japanese and Finnish populations. We investigated the association between ESR1 polymorphisms (PvuII and XbaI) and MS in a study of 132 MS patients and 129 controls from the same geographic background (southern Italy). Allelic and genotypic frequencies were not different between MS patients and population controls for either the PvuII or XbaI polymorphism. This result suggests that the association between a given disease and a genomic characteristic must be confirmed by separate investigations in different populations.

Estrogen receptor gene polymorphism and multiple sclerosis in Japanese patients: interaction with HLA-DRB1*1501 and disease modulation

We investigated PvuII and XbaI polymorphism in the estrogen receptor gene (ERG) and HLA-DRB1*1501 positivity in 116 conventional multiple sclerosis (MS) patients and 101 healthy controls in a Japanese population. Logistic analysis revealed independent associations of [P] allele in the profiles for PvuII (p=0.0005, adjusted odds ratio (aOR)=3.17) and DRB1*1501 (p=0.0089, aOR=2.61) with conventional MS. Synergistic elevated risk of MS due to interaction between the [P] allele and HLA-DRB1*1501 allele was found among female patients (odds ratio=16.0; 95% CI=3.99-63.8, p<0.0001). The [P] allele-positive patients with disease duration of more than 5 years had a significantly higher progression index (PI) of disability (p=0.0230) and a worse ranked MS severity score (p=0.0152) than their non-[P] counterparts.