Aortic endothelial cell heterogeneity in vitro. Lack of association between morphological phenotype and collagen biosynthesis

Label-free second harmonic generation imaging of cerebral vascular wall in local ischemia mouse model in vivo

Second harmonic generation (SHG) imaging is label-free and non-invasive, and it has been extensively applied in multiple biological and medical studies, but not in the brain in vivo. In this study, we modified classical two photon excited fluorescence (TPEF) system to perform in vivo simultaneous TPEF and SHG imaging in the local ischemia mouse model. In cerebral vascular walls, we found strong SHG signal, which co-localized with collagen. In the continuous 2 days' in vivo imaging, this SHG signal remained stable in the local ischemic blood vessel in the initial 4 hours, then its signal abruptly increased and got spatially thickened 5 hours after thrombosis, and this tendency continued in the following 48 hours. This study provides direct and precise timeline of rapid collagen change in cerebral vascular walls in vivo, and reveals the subtle but significant temporal-spatial dynamics of this structural signal during local ischemia. Thus, this cerebral in vivo SHG imaging provides a powerful tool to identify the early and subtle pathological change of collagen around clinical key therapeutic time window.

Injectable system for spatio-temporally controlled delivery of hypoxia-induced angiogenic signalling

While chronically ischaemic tissues are continuously exposed to hypoxia, the primary angiogenic stimulus, they fail to appropriately respond to it, as hypoxia-regulated angiogenic factor production gradually undergoes down-regulation, thus hindering adaptive angiogenesis. We have previously reported on two strategies for delivering on demand hypoxia-induced signalling (HIS) in vivo, namely, implanting living or non-viable hypoxic cell-matrix depots that actively produce factors or act as carriers of factors trapped within the matrix during in vitro pre-conditioning, respectively. This study aims to improve this approach through the development of a novel, injectable system for delivering cell-free matrix HIS-carriers. 3D spiral collagen constructs, comprising an inner cellular and outer acellular compartment, were cultured under hypoxia (5% O₂). Cell-produced angiogenic factors (e.g. VEGF, FGF, PLGF, IL-8) were trapped within the nano-porous matrix of the acellular compartment as they radially diffused through it. The acellular matrix was mechanically fragmented into micro-fractions and added into a low temperature (5 °C) thermo-responsive type I collagen solution, which underwent a collagen concentration-dependent solution-to-gel phase transition at 37 °C. Levels of VEGF and IL-8, delivered from matrix fractions into media by diffusion through collagen sol-gel, were up-regulated by day 4 of hypoxic culture, peaked at day 8, and gradually declined towards the baseline by day 20, while FGF levels were stable over this period. Factors captured within matrix fractions were bioactive after 3 months freeze storage, as shown by their ability to induce tubule formation in an in vitro angiogenesis assay. This system provides a minimally invasive, and repeatable, method for localised delivery of time-specific, cell-free HIS factor mixtures, as a tool for physiological induction of spatio-temporally controlled angiogenesis.

The influence of biomaterials on endothelial cell thrombogenicity

Driven by tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, endothelial cells are being used in combination with biomaterials in a number of applications for the purpose of improving blood compatibility and host integration. Endothelialized vascular grafts are beginning to be used clinically with some success in some centers, while endothelial seeding is being explored as a means of creating a vasculature within engineered tissues. The underlying assumption of this strategy is that when cultured on artificial biomaterials, a confluent layer of endothelial cells maintain their non-thrombogenic phenotype. In this review the existing knowledge base of endothelial cell thrombogenicity cultured on a number of different biomaterials is summarized. The importance of selecting appropriate endpoint measures that are most reflective of overall surface thrombogenicity is the focus of this review. Endothelial cells inhibit thrombosis through three interconnected regulatory systems (1) the coagulation cascade, (2) the cellular components of the blood such as leukocytes and platelets and (3) the complement cascade, and also through effects on fibrinolysis and vascular tone, the latter which influences blood flow. Thus, in order to demonstrate the thrombogenic benefit of seeding a biomaterial with EC, the conditions under which EC surfaces are more likely to exhibit lower thrombogenicity than unseeded biomaterial surfaces need to be consistent with the experimental context. The endpoints selected should be appropriate for the dominant thrombotic process that occurs under the given experimental conditions.

Cell sheet detachment affects the extracellular matrix: A surface science study comparing thermal liftoff, enzymatic, and mechanical methods

This work compares the removal of bovine aortic endothelial cell (BAEC) monolayers via 1) low-temperature liftoff from a "smart polymer," plasma polymerized poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) (ppNIPAM), 2) enzymatic digestion, and 3) mechanical dissociation from ppNIPAM surfaces. We examine the surfaces after cell removal by using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), immunostaining, and cell adhesion assay. Immunoassay results indicate that low-temperature liftoff nondestructively harvests the cell sheet and most of the underlying extracellular matrix (ECM), whereas enzymatic digestion and mechanical dissociation are damaging to both the cells and ECM. XPS results indicate that amide and alcohol groups attributed to proteins in the ECM are present on postliftoff surfaces. Principal component analysis (PCA) of ToF-SIMS data indicates that molecular ion fragments of amino acids are present on postliftoff surfaces. Finally, a cell adhesion assay seeding new cells on surfaces from which an initial layer of cells was removed via each of the three methods indicates that liftoff and mechanical dissociation leave behind surfaces that better promote cell adhesion. We conclude that the removal of BAEC cells via low-temperature liftoff from ppNIPAM-treated surfaces is less damaging to the ECM proteins remaining at the surface than the other methods.

Surface characterization of the extracellular matrix remaining after cell detachment from a thermoresponsive polymer

The temperature-responsive behavior of poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) (pNIPAM) directly affects the attachment and detachment of cells cultured on these surfaces. At culture temperatures, cells behave similarly to those on tissue culture polystyrene (TCPS), while at room temperature, cells cultured on pNIPAM spontaneously detach as a confluent sheet. In comparison, cells grown on TCPS remain attached indefinitely after the temperature drop, requiring enzymatic or mechanical removal. In this work, we present an examination of the response of bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs) and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins to plasma polymerized NIPAM (ppNIPAM) surfaces using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), and immunostaining. Immunoassay results reveal that, although fibronectin, laminin, and collagen closely associate with the cell sheet, some collagen may be associated with the surface, as well. Our XPS results indicate that ppNIPAM surfaces after cell liftoff differ from their blank counterparts, the primary distinction being the presence of amide and alcohol species on ppNIPAM surfaces used for cell culture, possibly owing to the presence of a proteinaceous film. Finally, a comparison between ppNIPAM-treated surfaces used for cell culture versus control surfaces by principal component analysis of the ToF-SIMS data confirms that the surfaces differ; the presence of molecular ion fragments from amino acids (e.g., alanine, glycine, and proline) is the chief reason for this difference. Therefore, from our surface characterization of ppNIPAM-coated TCPS after cell liftoff, we conclude that although low-temperature liftoff of the BAEC monolayer is accompanied by the majority of the components of the ECM, some of the ECM proteins still remain at the surface.

Angiotensin II is mitogenic for cultured rat glomerular endothelial cells

Angiotensin II (Ang II) has growth-stimulatory properties on different renal cell types. However, possible growth effects of this vasoactive peptide on endothelial cells isolated from the glomerular microvasculature have not been formally investigated. Therefore, we isolated and characterized primary cultures of rat glomerular endothelial cells. We used a simple technique in which collagenase-treated glomeruli were sparsely plated in several 96-well culture plates and microscopically screened for cobblestone-like outgrowth. After two limiting dilutions, homogeneous cultures were obtained. Cells were characterized by positive staining for the endothelial markers factor VIII, CD 31, endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule-1, and the lectin Bandeiraea simplificifolia. Ang II stimulated the synthesis and release of endothelin-1 in culture supernatants. Moreover, in contrast to syngeneic mesangial cells, glomerular endothelial cells expressed angiotensin-converting enzyme. Ang II stimulated a mild but significant proliferation of quiescent cells, as measured by [3H]thymidine incorporation and direct cell counting. This mitogenesis was transduced by losartan-blockade angiotensin type 1 receptors. Moreover, Ang II mediated phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase 2 and induction of transcripts for the immediate early gene Egr-1. Our results indicate that Ang II is a moderate mitogen for primary cultures of rat glomerular endothelial cells and activation of these metabolically active cells may play a role in the pathophysiology of several types of glomerulonephritis. Moreover, remodeling of glomerular endothelial cells by Ang II may be important in the progression of structural renal damage during the course of hypertensive injury.

Alpha- and beta-xylosides modulate the synthesis of fibronectin and thrombospondin-1 by endothelial cells

We have previously shown that both p-nitrophenyl-alpha-D-xylopyranoside (alpha-xyloside) and p-nitrophenyl-beta-D-xylopyranoside (beta-xyloside) inhibit endothelial morphogenesis in vitro. In order to determine the mechanism for this inhibition, we have now investigated the effects of these compounds on the synthesis of proteoglycans and proteins by bovine aortic endothelial cells. Consistent with their well-recognised modes of action, beta-xyloside, but not alpha-xyloside, enhanced the secretion of free glycosaminoglycans into the medium. Furthermore, although both xylosides inhibited proteoglycan deposition into the cell layer/matrix, only beta-xyloside altered the nature of the proteoglycans synthesised by the cells. Both alpha- and beta-xylosides markedly inhibited total protein synthesis by endothelial cells in the absence of any effect on cell growth. This inhibition was time- and dose-dependent and was not due to the enzymatic release of p-nitrophenol by the cells. The synthesis of fibronectin and thrombospondin-1 were specifically and differentially modulated by both alpha- and beta-xylosides. That is, xylosides markedly reduced fibronectin levels relative to other proteins in both the medium and the cell layer/matrix. In contrast, the relative levels of thrombospondin-1 were increased in the xyloside-treated cultures both in terms of mRNA and protein. These studies demonstrate novel effects of xylosides on protein synthesis. Furthermore, they suggest that the inhibition of endothelial morphogenesis by xylosides may be due to the actions of these compounds on the synthesis of specific proteins.

Heterogeneity in collagen biosynthesis by sprouting retinal endothelial cells

Bovine retinal microvascular endothelial cells can display two distinct and reversible morphologies in culture: 'cobblestone' and 'sprouting'. The cobblestone morphology resembles the resting cells lining the lumen of mature vessels while the sprouting morphology resembles the angiogenic cells involved in the formation of new vessels. Retinal cells displayed some heterogeneity in the shape of the cells making up the cobblestone monolayer. In contrast, all cell lines displayed an identical sprouting morphology. We have investigated the synthesis of matrix macromolecules by retinal endothelial cells displaying either the cobblestone or the sprouting morphology. Type IV was the only collagen synthesised by eight different lines of early-passage (between one and six) cobblestone endothelial cells. Collagen types I and III were not detected in these cultures. In contrast, heterogeneity was observed in the types of collagen synthesized by four lines of early-passage cells displaying the sprouting morphology. That is, two lines synthesised collagen types, II, III and IV, whereas two other lines continued to synthesise only type IV collagen. Both cobblestone and sprouting cells synthesised fibronectin and thrombospondin, although the relative amounts of these macromolecules varied with culture conditions. The pattern of collagen synthesis by cobblestone cells was also affected by in vitro "ageing": 4/5 lines examined above passage eight synthesised collagen types I, III and IV. Our results indicate that there is heterogeneity in the sprouting phenotype displayed by retinal endothelial cells, and that this phenotype is not necessarily associated with the synthesis of type I collagen. We suggest that differences in the spectrum of matrix macromolecules synthesised by sprouting endothelial cells may play a role in the control of angiogenesis.

Comparison of gene expression of extracellular matrix molecules in brain microvascular endothelial cells and astrocytes

By use of random-primed cDNA probes the expression of extracellular matrix molecules in cerebral microvascular endothelial cells (cEC) and in astrocytes from mouse brain was examined. Two phenotypically different batches of cloned cEC were used. Expression of major adhesive ECM molecules, constituting the endothelial basement membrane (i.e., fibronectin, laminin A, B and collagen IV) and of other attachment factors, such as SPARC (osteonectin), tenascin and thrombospondin 1, was examined. We have demonstrated that cEC of different morphology display variations in the expression of fibronectin (FN), thrombospondin 1 (TSP1) and collagen IV (C IV). Astrocytes were shown to contain FN, TSP1, TN and SPARC mRNA. Unexpectedly, SPARC mRNA could not be detected in any of the capillary endothelial cells examined. Therefore, we suggest that astrocytes are likely to be involved in endothelial differentiation and function in the central nervous system via ECM molecule secretion.