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Di Stefano N, Vuust P, Brattico E. Consonance and dissonance perception. A critical review of the historical sources, multidisciplinary findings, and main hypotheses. Phys Life Rev 2022; 43:273-304. [PMID: 36372030 DOI: 10.1016/j.plrev.2022.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Revealed more than two millennia ago by Pythagoras, consonance and dissonance (C/D) are foundational concepts in music theory, perception, and aesthetics. The search for the biological, acoustical, and cultural factors that affect C/D perception has resulted in descriptive accounts inspired by arithmetic, musicological, psychoacoustical or neurobiological frameworks without reaching a consensus. Here, we review the key historical sources and modern multidisciplinary findings on C/D and integrate them into three main hypotheses: the vocal similarity hypothesis (VSH), the psychocultural hypothesis (PH), and the sensorimotor hypothesis (SH). By illustrating the hypotheses-related findings, we highlight their major conceptual, methodological, and terminological shortcomings. Trying to provide a unitary framework for C/D understanding, we put together multidisciplinary research on human and animal vocalizations, which converges to suggest that auditory roughness is associated with distress/danger and, therefore, elicits defensive behavioral reactions and neural responses that indicate aversion. We therefore stress the primacy of vocality and roughness as key factors in the explanation of C/D phenomenon, and we explore the (neuro)biological underpinnings of the attraction-aversion mechanisms that are triggered by C/D stimuli. Based on the reviewed evidence, while the aversive nature of dissonance appears as solidly rooted in the multidisciplinary findings, the attractive nature of consonance remains a somewhat speculative claim that needs further investigation. Finally, we outline future directions for empirical research in C/D, especially regarding cross-modal and cross-cultural approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Di Stefano
- Institute for Cognitive Sciences and Technologies (ISTC), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via San Martino della Battaglia 44, 00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - Peter Vuust
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University Royal Academy of Music Aarhus/Aalborg (RAMA), 8000 Aarhus, Denmark.
| | - Elvira Brattico
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University Royal Academy of Music Aarhus/Aalborg (RAMA), 8000 Aarhus, Denmark; Department of Education, Psychology, Communication, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70122 Bari, Italy.
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2
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Di Stefano N, Spence C. Roughness perception: A multisensory/crossmodal perspective. Atten Percept Psychophys 2022; 84:2087-2114. [PMID: 36028614 PMCID: PMC9481510 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-022-02550-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Roughness is a perceptual attribute typically associated with certain stimuli that are presented in one of the spatial senses. In auditory research, the term is typically used to describe the harsh effects that are induced by particular sound qualities (i.e., dissonance) and human/animal vocalizations (e.g., screams, distress cries). In the tactile domain, roughness is a crucial factor determining the perceptual features of a surface. The same feature can also be ascertained visually, by means of the extraction of pattern features that determine the haptic quality of surfaces, such as grain size and density. By contrast, the term roughness has rarely been applied to the description of those stimuli perceived via the chemical senses. In this review, we take a critical look at the putative meaning(s) of the term roughness, when used in both unisensory and multisensory contexts, in an attempt to answer two key questions: (1) Is the use of the term 'roughness' the same in each modality when considered individually? and (2) Do crossmodal correspondences involving roughness match distinct perceptual features or (at least on certain occasions) do they merely pick-up on an amodal property? We start by examining the use of the term in the auditory domain. Next, we summarize the ways in which the term roughness has been used in the literature on tactile and visual perception, and in the domain of olfaction and gustation. Then, we move on to the crossmodal context, reviewing the literature on the perception of roughness in the audiovisual, audiotactile, and auditory-gustatory/olfactory domains. Finally, we highlight some limitations of the reviewed literature and we outline a number of key directions for future empirical research in roughness perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Di Stefano
- National Research Council, Institute for Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, Rome, Italy.
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3
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Elmegaard SL, McDonald BI, Teilmann J, Madsen PT. Heart rate and startle responses in diving, captive harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) exposed to transient noise and sonar. Biol Open 2021; 10:bio058679. [PMID: 34133736 PMCID: PMC8249908 DOI: 10.1242/bio.058679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthropogenic noise can alter marine mammal behaviour and physiology, but little is known about cetacean cardiovascular responses to exposures, despite evidence that acoustic stressors, such as naval sonars, may lead to decompression sickness. Here, we measured heart rate and movements of two trained harbour porpoises during controlled exposure to 6-9 kHz sonar-like sweeps and 40 kHz peak-frequency noise pulses, designed to evoke acoustic startle responses. The porpoises initially responded to the sonar sweep with intensified bradycardia despite unaltered behaviour/movement, but habituated rapidly to the stimuli. In contrast, 40 kHz noise pulses consistently evoked rapid muscle flinches (indicative of startles), but no behavioural or heart rate changes. We conclude that the autonomous startle response appears decoupled from, or overridden by, cardiac regulation in diving porpoises, whereas certain novel stimuli may motivate oxygen-conserving cardiovascular measures. Such responses to sound exposure may contribute to gas mismanagement for deeper-diving cetaceans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siri L. Elmegaard
- Zoophysiology, Department of Biology, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
- Marine Mammal Research, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Birgitte I. McDonald
- Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, San Jose State University, Moss Landing, CA 95039-9647, USA
| | - Jonas Teilmann
- Marine Mammal Research, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Peter T. Madsen
- Zoophysiology, Department of Biology, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
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4
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Greggor AL, Berger-Tal O, Blumstein DT. The Rules of Attraction: The Necessary Role of Animal Cognition in Explaining Conservation Failures and Successes. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY, EVOLUTION, AND SYSTEMATICS 2020. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-011720-103212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Integrating knowledge and principles of animal behavior into wildlife conservation and management has led to some concrete successes but has failed to improve conservation outcomes in other cases. Many conservation interventions involve attempts to either attract or repel animals, which we refer to as approach/avoidance issues. These attempts can be reframed as issues of manipulating the decisions animals make, which are driven by their perceptual abilities and attentional biases, as well as the value animals attribute to current stimuli and past learned experiences. These processes all fall under the umbrella of animal cognition. Here, we highlight rules that emerge when considering approach/avoidance conservation issues through the lens of cognitive-based management. For each rule, we review relevant conservation successes and failures to better predict the conditions in which behavior can be manipulated, and we suggest how to avoid future failures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison L. Greggor
- Department of Recovery Ecology, Institute for Conservation Research, San Diego Zoo Global, Escondido, California 92027, USA
| | - Oded Berger-Tal
- Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology, Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Midreshet Ben-Gurion 8499000, Israel
| | - Daniel T. Blumstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
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5
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Postal O, Dupont T, Bakay W, Dominique N, Petit C, Michalski N, Gourévitch B. Spontaneous Mouse Behavior in Presence of Dissonance and Acoustic Roughness. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:588834. [PMID: 33132864 PMCID: PMC7578920 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.588834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
According to a novel hypothesis (Arnal et al., 2015, Current Biology 25:2051-2056), auditory roughness, or temporal envelope modulations between 30 and 150 Hz, are present in both natural and artificial human alarm signals, which boosts the detection of these alarms in various tasks. These results also shed new light on the unpleasantness of dissonant sounds to humans, which builds upon the high level of roughness present in such sounds. However, it is not clear whether this hypothesis also applies to other species, such as rodents. In particular, whether consonant/dissonant chords, and particularly whether auditory roughness, can trigger unpleasant sensations in mice remains unknown. Using an autonomous behavioral system, which allows the monitoring of mouse behavior over a period of weeks, we observed that C57Bl6J mice did not show any preference for consonant chords. In addition, we found that mice showed a preference for rough sounds over sounds having amplitude modulations in their temporal envelope outside the "rough" range. These results suggest that some emotional features carried by the acoustic temporal envelope are likely to be species-specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Postal
- Institut de l’Audition, Institut Pasteur, INSERM, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Collège Doctoral, Paris, France
| | - Typhaine Dupont
- Institut de l’Audition, Institut Pasteur, INSERM, Paris, France
| | - Warren Bakay
- Institut de l’Audition, Institut Pasteur, INSERM, Paris, France
| | - Noémi Dominique
- Institut de l’Audition, Institut Pasteur, INSERM, Paris, France
| | - Christine Petit
- Institut de l’Audition, Institut Pasteur, INSERM, Paris, France
- Syndrome de Usher et Autres Atteintes Rétino-Cochléaires, Institut de la Vision, Paris, France
- Collège de France, Paris, France
| | | | - Boris Gourévitch
- Institut de l’Audition, Institut Pasteur, INSERM, Paris, France
- CNRS, Paris, France
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Wilson LJ, Harwood J, Booth CG, Joy R, Harris CM. A decision framework to identify populations that are most vulnerable to the population level effects of disturbance. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay J. Wilson
- SMRU Consulting University of St Andrews St Andrews UK
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling University of St Andrews St Andrews UK
| | - John Harwood
- SMRU Consulting University of St Andrews St Andrews UK
| | | | - Ruth Joy
- SMRU Consulting Canada Vancouver BC Canada
| | - Catriona M. Harris
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling University of St Andrews St Andrews UK
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7
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Penny SG, White RL, Scott DM, MacTavish L, Pernetta AP. Using drones and sirens to elicit avoidance behaviour in white rhinoceros as an anti-poaching tactic. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20191135. [PMID: 31311472 PMCID: PMC6661359 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Poaching fuelled by international trade in horn caused the deaths of over 1000 African rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum and Diceros bicornis) per year between 2013 and 2017. Deterrents, which act to establish avoidance behaviours in animals, have the potential to aid anti-poaching efforts by moving at-risk rhinos away from areas of danger (e.g. near perimeter fences). To evaluate the efficacy of deterrents, we exposed a population of southern white rhinos (C. simum simum) to acoustic- (honeybee, siren, turtle dove), olfactory- (chilli, sunflower), and drone-based stimuli on a game reserve in South Africa. We exposed rhinos to each stimulus up to four times. Stimuli were considered effective deterrents if they repeatedly elicited avoidance behaviour (locomotion away from the deterrent). Rhinos travelled significantly further in response to the siren than to the honeybee or turtle dove stimulus, and to low-altitude drone flights than to higher altitude flights. We found the drone to be superior at manipulating rhino movement than the siren owing to its longer transmission range and capability of pursuit. By contrast, the scent stimuli were ineffective at inciting avoidance behaviour. Our findings indicate that deterrents are a prospective low-cost and in situ method to manage rhino movement in game reserves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel G Penny
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
| | - Rachel L White
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
| | - Dawn M Scott
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
| | - Lynne MacTavish
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
| | - Angelo P Pernetta
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK
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8
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Mikkelsen L, Johnson M, Wisniewska DM, van Neer A, Siebert U, Madsen PT, Teilmann J. Long-term sound and movement recording tags to study natural behavior and reaction to ship noise of seals. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:2588-2601. [PMID: 30891202 PMCID: PMC6405890 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of anthropogenic noise on marine fauna is of increasing conservation concern with vessel noise being one of the major contributors. Animals that rely on shallow coastal habitats may be especially vulnerable to this form of pollution.Very limited information is available on how much noise from ship traffic individual animals experience, and how they may react to it due to a lack of suitable methods. To address this, we developed long-duration audio and 3D-movement tags (DTAGs) and deployed them on three harbor seals and two gray seals in the North Sea during 2015-2016.These tags recorded sound, accelerometry, magnetometry, and pressure continuously for up to 21 days. GPS positions were also sampled for one seal continuously throughout the recording period. A separate tag, combining a camera and an accelerometer logger, was deployed on two harbor seals to visualize specific behaviors that helped interpret accelerometer signals in the DTAG data.Combining data from depth, accelerometer, and audio sensors, we found that animals spent 6.6%-42.3% of the time hauled out (either on land or partly submerged), and 5.3%-12.4% of their at-sea time resting at the sea bottom, while the remaining time was used for traveling, resting at surface, and foraging. Animals were exposed to audible vessel noise 2.2%-20.5% of their time when in water, and we demonstrate that interruption of functional behaviors (e.g., resting) in some cases coincides with high-level vessel noise. Two-thirds of the ship noise events were traceable by the AIS vessel tracking system, while one-third comprised vessels without AIS.This preliminary study demonstrates how concomitant long-term continuous broadband on-animal sound and movement recordings may be an important tool in future quantification of disturbance effects of anthropogenic activities at sea and assessment of long-term population impacts on pinnipeds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark Johnson
- Sea Mammal Research UnitUniversity of St. AndrewsSt. AndrewsUK
- Department of BioscienceAarhus UniversityAarhus CDenmark
| | - Danuta Maria Wisniewska
- Department of BioscienceAarhus UniversityRoskildeDenmark
- Hopkins Marine StationStanford UniversityStanfordCalifornia
| | - Abbo van Neer
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research (ITAW)University of Veterinary Medicine HannoverFoundationGermany
| | - Ursula Siebert
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research (ITAW)University of Veterinary Medicine HannoverFoundationGermany
| | - Peter Teglberg Madsen
- Department of BioscienceAarhus UniversityAarhus CDenmark
- Aarhus Institute for Advanced StudiesAarhus UniversityAarhus CDenmark
| | - Jonas Teilmann
- Department of BioscienceAarhus UniversityRoskildeDenmark
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9
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Pontoon trap for salmon and trout equipped with a seal exclusion device catches larger salmons. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0201164. [PMID: 30048493 PMCID: PMC6062063 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The growing seal populations of the Baltic have led to more frequent interactions with coastal fisheries. The motivation for seals to interact with fishing gear is high. It provides high densities of fish. A successful means of mitigating the conflict is the pontoon trap. Seal visits here have been frequent. Seals have access to most parts of the trap system including the middle chamber, which is an overhead environment. Concerns have been raised about seals possible entanglement in this specific part of the trap. As a means of keeping seals from entering the middle chamber, two different Seal Exclusion Devices (SEDs) were tested. A diamond mesh SED and a square mesh SED, which was rotated 45°. The aim was to compare the functionality of the different SEDs with respect to seal deterrent abilities and catch composition. The hypothesis tested were (i) that seals would not be able to enter the middle chamber, (ii) that the catch would increase and (iii) that the SED would deter larger fish from swimming into the middle chamber. Catch data and underwater film were collected. Larger salmons were caught in traps equipped with SEDs. The SEDs did not affect the number of caught fish or the total catch per soak day.
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Branstetter BK, Bowman VF, Houser DS, Tormey M, Banks P, Finneran JJ, Jenkins K. Effects of vibratory pile driver noise on echolocation and vigilance in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2018; 143:429. [PMID: 29390736 DOI: 10.1121/1.5021555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Vibratory pile drivers, used for marine construction, can produce sustained, high sound pressure levels (SPLs) in areas that overlap with dolphin habitats. Dolphins rely on echolocation for navigation, detecting predators and prey, and to coordinate group behavior. This study examined the effects of vibratory pile driver noise on dolphin sustained target detection capabilities through echolocation. Five dolphins were required to scan their enclosure and indicate the occurrences of phantom echoes during five different source levels of vibratory pile driver playback sound (no-playback control, 110, 120, 130, and 140 dB re 1 μPa). Three of the dolphins demonstrated a significant decrease in target detection performance at 140 dB playback level that was associated with an almost complete secession of echolocation activity. The performance of two dolphins was not affected. All dolphins rapidly returned to baseline levels of target detection performance by their second replication. However, an increased number of clicks was produced at the highest playback SPL. The data suggest that the decrease in vigilant behavior was due to the vibratory pile driver noise distracting the dolphins and decreasing their motivation to perform the task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian K Branstetter
- National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2240 Shelter Island Drive, Number 200, San Diego, California 92106, USA
| | - Victoria F Bowman
- National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2240 Shelter Island Drive, Number 200, San Diego, California 92106, USA
| | - Dorian S Houser
- National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2240 Shelter Island Drive, Number 200, San Diego, California 92106, USA
| | - Megan Tormey
- National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2240 Shelter Island Drive, Number 200, San Diego, California 92106, USA
| | - Patchouly Banks
- National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2240 Shelter Island Drive, Number 200, San Diego, California 92106, USA
| | - James J Finneran
- U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Pacific, Code 71510, 53560 Hull Street, San Diego, California 92152, USA
| | - Keith Jenkins
- U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Pacific, Code 71510, 53560 Hull Street, San Diego, California 92152, USA
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11
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Hastie GD, Russell DJF, Lepper P, Elliott J, Wilson B, Benjamins S, Thompson D. Harbour seals avoid tidal turbine noise: Implications for collision risk. J Appl Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gordon D. Hastie
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews UK
| | - Debbie J. F. Russell
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews UK
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling; The Observatory; University of St Andrews; St Andrews UK
| | | | - Jim Elliott
- Scottish Association for Marine Science; Scottish Marine Institute Oban; Argyll UK
| | - Ben Wilson
- Scottish Association for Marine Science; Scottish Marine Institute Oban; Argyll UK
| | - Steven Benjamins
- Scottish Association for Marine Science; Scottish Marine Institute Oban; Argyll UK
| | - Dave Thompson
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews UK
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12
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Mikkelsen L, Hermannsen L, Beedholm K, Madsen PT, Tougaard J. Simulated seal scarer sounds scare porpoises, but not seals: species-specific responses to 12 kHz deterrence sounds. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:170286. [PMID: 28791155 PMCID: PMC5541550 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.170286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Acoustic harassment devices (AHD) or 'seal scarers' are used extensively, not only to deter seals from fisheries, but also as mitigation tools to deter marine mammals from potentially harmful sound sources, such as offshore pile driving. To test the effectiveness of AHDs, we conducted two studies with similar experimental set-ups on two key species: harbour porpoises and harbour seals. We exposed animals to 500 ms tone bursts at 12 kHz simulating that of an AHD (Lofitech), but with reduced output levels (source peak-to-peak level of 165 dB re 1 µPa). Animals were localized with a theodolite before, during and after sound exposures. In total, 12 sound exposures were conducted to porpoises and 13 exposures to seals. Porpoises were found to exhibit avoidance reactions out to ranges of 525 m from the sound source. Contrary to this, seal observations increased during sound exposure within 100 m of the loudspeaker. We thereby demonstrate that porpoises and seals respond very differently to AHD sounds. This has important implications for application of AHDs in multi-species habitats, as sound levels required to deter less sensitive species (seals) can lead to excessive and unwanted large deterrence ranges on more sensitive species (porpoises).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Line Hermannsen
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Kristian Beedholm
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Jakob Tougaard
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
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13
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Schakner ZA, Götz T, Janik VM, Blumstein DT. Can fear conditioning repel California sea lions from fishing activities? Anim Conserv 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zachary A. Schakner
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology University of California Los Angeles Los Angeles CA 90095‐1606 USA
| | - Thomas Götz
- Sea Mammal Research Unit Scottish Oceans Institute University of St Andrews East Sands St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
| | - Vincent M. Janik
- Sea Mammal Research Unit Scottish Oceans Institute University of St Andrews East Sands St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
| | - Daniel T. Blumstein
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology University of California Los Angeles Los Angeles CA 90095‐1606 USA
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14
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Radford AN, Lèbre L, Lecaillon G, Nedelec SL, Simpson SD. Repeated exposure reduces the response to impulsive noise in European seabass. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2016; 22:3349-60. [PMID: 27282635 PMCID: PMC5006868 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Revised: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Human activities have changed the acoustic environment of many terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems around the globe. Mounting evidence indicates that the resulting anthropogenic noise can impact the behaviour and physiology of at least some species in a range of taxa. However, the majority of experimental studies have considered only immediate responses to single, relatively short-term noise events. Repeated exposure to noise could lead to a heightened or lessened response. Here, we conduct two long-term (12 week), laboratory-based exposure experiments with European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) to examine how an initial impact of different sound types potentially changes over time. Naïve fish showed elevated ventilation rates, indicating heightened stress, in response to impulsive additional noise (playbacks of recordings of pile-driving and seismic surveys), but not to a more continuous additional noise source (playbacks of recordings of ship passes). However, fish exposed to playbacks of pile-driving or seismic noise for 12 weeks no longer responded with an elevated ventilation rate to the same noise type. Fish exposed long-term to playback of pile-driving noise also no longer responded to short-term playback of seismic noise. The lessened response after repeated exposure, likely driven by increased tolerance or a change in hearing threshold, helps explain why fish that experienced 12 weeks of impulsive noise showed no differences in stress, growth or mortality compared to those reared with exposure to ambient-noise playback. Considering how responses to anthropogenic noise change with repeated exposure is important both when assessing likely fitness consequences and the need for mitigation measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew N. Radford
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of BristolLife Sciences Building24 Tyndall AvenueBristolBS8 1TQUK
| | | | | | - Sophie L. Nedelec
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of BristolLife Sciences Building24 Tyndall AvenueBristolBS8 1TQUK
| | - Stephen D. Simpson
- BiosciencesCollege of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterStocker RoadExeterEX4 4QDUK
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15
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Götz T, Janik VM. The startle reflex in acoustic deterrence: an approach with universal applicability? Anim Conserv 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. Götz
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews UK
| | - V. M. Janik
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews UK
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Russell DJF, Hastie GD, Thompson D, Janik VM, Hammond PS, Scott-Hayward LAS, Matthiopoulos J, Jones EL, McConnell BJ. Avoidance of wind farms by harbour seals is limited to pile driving activities. J Appl Ecol 2016; 53:1642-1652. [PMID: 27867217 PMCID: PMC5111737 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
As part of global efforts to reduce dependence on carbon‐based energy sources there has been a rapid increase in the installation of renewable energy devices. The installation and operation of these devices can result in conflicts with wildlife. In the marine environment, mammals may avoid wind farms that are under construction or operating. Such avoidance may lead to more time spent travelling or displacement from key habitats. A paucity of data on at‐sea movements of marine mammals around wind farms limits our understanding of the nature of their potential impacts. Here, we present the results of a telemetry study on harbour seals Phoca vitulina in The Wash, south‐east England, an area where wind farms are being constructed using impact pile driving. We investigated whether seals avoid wind farms during operation, construction in its entirety, or during piling activity. The study was carried out using historical telemetry data collected prior to any wind farm development and telemetry data collected in 2012 during the construction of one wind farm and the operation of another. Within an operational wind farm, there was a close‐to‐significant increase in seal usage compared to prior to wind farm development. However, the wind farm was at the edge of a large area of increased usage, so the presence of the wind farm was unlikely to be the cause. There was no significant displacement during construction as a whole. However, during piling, seal usage (abundance) was significantly reduced up to 25 km from the piling activity; within 25 km of the centre of the wind farm, there was a 19 to 83% (95% confidence intervals) decrease in usage compared to during breaks in piling, equating to a mean estimated displacement of 440 individuals. This amounts to significant displacement starting from predicted received levels of between 166 and 178 dB re 1 μPa(p‐p). Displacement was limited to piling activity; within 2 h of cessation of pile driving, seals were distributed as per the non‐piling scenario. Synthesis and applications. Our spatial and temporal quantification of avoidance of wind farms by harbour seals is critical to reduce uncertainty and increase robustness in environmental impact assessments of future developments. Specifically, the results will allow policymakers to produce industry guidance on the likelihood of displacement of seals in response to pile driving; the relationship between sound levels and avoidance rates; and the duration of any avoidance, thus allowing far more accurate environmental assessments to be carried out during the consenting process. Further, our results can be used to inform mitigation strategies in terms of both the sound levels likely to cause displacement and what temporal patterns of piling would minimize the magnitude of the energetic impacts of displacement.
Our spatial and temporal quantification of avoidance of wind farms by harbour seals is critical to reduce uncertainty and increase robustness in environmental impact assessments of future developments. Specifically, the results will allow policymakers to produce industry guidance on the likelihood of displacement of seals in response to pile driving; the relationship between sound levels and avoidance rates; and the duration of any avoidance, thus allowing far more accurate environmental assessments to be carried out during the consenting process. Further, our results can be used to inform mitigation strategies in terms of both the sound levels likely to cause displacement and what temporal patterns of piling would minimize the magnitude of the energetic impacts of displacement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debbie J F Russell
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK; Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 9LZ UK
| | - Gordon D Hastie
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
| | - David Thompson
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
| | - Vincent M Janik
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
| | - Philip S Hammond
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
| | - Lindesay A S Scott-Hayward
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 9LZ UK
| | - Jason Matthiopoulos
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health, and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow Graham Kerr Building Glasgow G12 8QQ UK
| | - Esther L Jones
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK; Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 9LZ UK
| | - Bernie J McConnell
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
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Pirotta V, Slip D, Jonsen ID, Peddemors VM, Cato DH, Ross G, Harcourt R. Migrating humpback whales show no detectable response to whale alarms off Sydney, Australia. ENDANGER SPECIES RES 2016. [DOI: 10.3354/esr00712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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Götz T, Janik VM. Non-lethal management of carnivore predation: long-term tests with a startle reflex-based deterrence system on a fish farm. Anim Conserv 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- T. Götz
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews Scotland UK
| | - V. M. Janik
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews Scotland UK
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Stansbury A, Deecke V, Götz T, Janik VM. Potential Uses of Anthropogenic Noise as a Source of Information in Animal Sensory and Communication Systems. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 875:1105-11. [PMID: 26611074 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2981-8_137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Although current research on the impact of anthropogenic noise has focused on the detrimental effects, there is a range of ways by which animals could benefit from increased noise levels. Here we discuss two potential uses of anthropogenic noise. First, local variations in the ambient-noise field could be used to perceive objects and navigate within an environment. Second, introduced sound cues could be used as a signal for prey detection or orientation and navigation. Although the disadvantages of noise pollution will likely outweigh any positive effects, it is important to acknowledge that such changes may benefit some species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Stansbury
- Sea Mammal Research Unit (SMRU), Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, UK.
| | - Volker Deecke
- Sea Mammal Research Unit (SMRU), Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, UK.
| | - Thomas Götz
- Sea Mammal Research Unit (SMRU), Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, UK.
| | - Vincent M Janik
- Sea Mammal Research Unit (SMRU), Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, UK.
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20
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Andersson MH, Johansson T. Assessment of Marine Mammal Impact Zones for Use of Military Sonar in the Baltic Sea. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2015; 875:37-45. [PMID: 26610942 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2981-8_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Military sonars are known to have caused cetaceans to strand. Navies in shallow seas use different frequencies and sonar pulses, commonly frequencies between 25 and 100 kHz, compared with most studied NATO sonar systems that have been evaluated for their environmental impact. These frequencies match the frequencies of best hearing in the harbor porpoises and seals resident in the Baltic Sea. This study uses published temporary and permanent threshold shifts, measured behavioral response thresholds, technical specifications of a sonar system, and environmental parameters affecting sound propagation common for the Baltic Sea to estimate the impact zones for harbor porpoises and seals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias H Andersson
- Department of Underwater Research, Swedish Defence Research Agency, 164 90, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Torbjörn Johansson
- Department of Underwater Research, Swedish Defence Research Agency, 164 90, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Stansbury AL, Götz T, Deecke VB, Janik VM. Grey seals use anthropogenic signals from acoustic tags to locate fish: evidence from a simulated foraging task. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20141595. [PMID: 25411449 PMCID: PMC4262164 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.1595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthropogenic noise can have negative effects on animal behaviour and physiology. However, noise is often introduced systematically and potentially provides information for navigation or prey detection. Here, we show that grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) learn to use sounds from acoustic fish tags as an indicator of food location. In 20 randomized trials each, 10 grey seals individually explored 20 foraging boxes, with one box containing a tagged fish, one containing an untagged fish and all other boxes being empty. The tagged box was found after significantly fewer non-tag box visits across trials, and seals revisited boxes containing the tag more often than any other box. The time and number of boxes needed to find both fish decreased significantly throughout consecutive trials. Two additional controls were conducted to investigate the role of the acoustic signal: (i) tags were placed in one box, with no fish present in any boxes and (ii) additional pieces of fish, inaccessible to the seal, were placed in the previously empty 18 boxes, making possible alternative chemosensory cues less reliable. During these controls, the acoustically tagged box was generally found significantly faster than the control box. Our results show that animals learn to use information provided by anthropogenic signals to enhance foraging success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Stansbury
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
| | - Thomas Götz
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
| | - Volker B Deecke
- Centre for Wildlife Conservation, University of Cumbria, Nook Lane, Ambleside, Cumbria LA22 9BB, UK
| | - Vincent M Janik
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
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Nachtigall PE, Supin AY. Conditioned frequency-dependent hearing sensitivity reduction in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 218:999-1005. [PMID: 25657210 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.114066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 01/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The frequency specificity of conditioned dampening of hearing, when a loud sound is preceded by a warning sound, was investigated in a bottlenose dolphin. The loud sounds were 5 s tones of 16, 22.5 or 32 kHz, sound pressure level of 165 dB root mean square (RMS) re. 1 µPa. Hearing sensitivity was tested at the same three frequencies. Hearing sensitivity was measured using pip-train test stimuli and auditory evoked potential recording. The test sound stimuli served also as warning sounds. The durations of the warning sounds were varied randomly to avoid locking a conditioning effect to the timing immediately before the loud sound. Hearing thresholds before the loud sound increased, relative to the baseline, at test frequencies equal to or higher than the loud sound frequency. The highest threshold increase appeared at test frequencies of 0.5 octaves above the loud sound frequencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul E Nachtigall
- Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawaii, PO Box 1106, Kailua, HI 96734, USA
| | - Alexander Ya Supin
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 33 Leninsky Prospect, Moscow 119071, Russia
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Götz T, Janik VM. Target-specific acoustic predator deterrence in the marine environment. Anim Conserv 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. Götz
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; School of Biology; University of St Andrews; St Andrews UK
| | - V. M. Janik
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; School of Biology; University of St Andrews; St Andrews UK
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24
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Nachtigall PE, Supin AY. Conditioned hearing sensitivity reduction in a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). J Exp Biol 2014; 217:2806-13. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.104091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The conditioned change in hearing sensitivity during a warning sound preceding a loud sound was investigated in the bottlenose dolphin. Hearing sensitivity was measured using pip-train test stimuli and auditory evoked potential recording. When the test/warning stimulus with a frequency of 22.5 or 32 kHz preceded the loud sound with a frequency of 22.5 kHz and a sound pressure level of 165 dB re 1 μPa rms, hearing thresholds before the loud sound increased relative to the baseline. The threshold increased up to 15 dB. In order to further investigate whether the observed threshold increase was due to conditioning, the dependence of the effect on warning duration and inter-trial interval was investigated. The duration of the warning substantially influenced the effect. Shorter warnings resulted in deeper suppression of responses and higher threshold increases than longer warnings. Alternatively, the effect was nearly independent of the duration of the inter-trial interval, i.e. independent of the delay from the loud sound to the test/warning sound in the subsequent trial. These data are considered as evidence that the observed hearing threshold increases were not a result of the unconditioned effect of the loud sound and were instead a manifestation of a conditioned dampening of hearing when the subject anticipated the quick appearance of a loud sound in the bottlenose dolphin in the same way as previously demonstrated in the false killer whale.
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Houser DS, Martin SW, Finneran JJ. Behavioral responses of California sea lions to mid-frequency (3250-3450 Hz) sonar signals. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2013; 92:268-278. [PMID: 24183102 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2013.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Revised: 10/10/2013] [Accepted: 10/11/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Military sonar has the potential to negatively impact marine mammals. To investigate factors affecting behavioral disruption in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus), fifteen sea lions participated in a controlled exposure study using a simulated tactical sonar signal (1 s duration, 3250-3450 Hz) as a stimulus. Subjects were placed into groups of three and each group received a stimulus exposure of 125, 140, 155, 170, or 185 dB re: 1 μPa (rms). Each subject was trained to swim across an enclosure, touch a paddle, and return to the start location. Sound exposures occurred at the mid-point of the enclosure. Control and exposure sessions were run consecutively and each consisted of ten, 30-s trials. The occurrence and severity of behavioral responses were used to create acoustic dose-response and dose-severity functions. Age of the subject significantly affected the dose-response relationship, but not the dose-severity relationship. Repetitive exposures did not affect the dose-response relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorian S Houser
- National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2240 Shelter Island Drive, Suite 200, San Diego, CA 92106, USA.
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26
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Nachtigall PE, Supin AY. A false killer whale reduces its hearing sensitivity when a loud sound is preceded by a warning. J Exp Biol 2013; 216:3062-70. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.085068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Summary
The possibility of conditioned dampening of whale hearing thresholds, when a loud sound is preceded by a warning sound, was investigated. The loud sound was a tone of 20 kHz, 170 dB re 1 μPa, 5s. Hearing sensitivity was measured using pip-train test stimuli and auditory evoked potential recording. The same test sounds served as warning sounds. The durations of the warning sounds were varied randomly to avoid locking an anticipated conditioning effect to the timing immediately before the loud sound. When the test/warning sound pairing varied within a range of 1 to 9 s or from 5 to 35 s, hearing thresholds before the loud sound increased relative to the baseline, respectively, by 10.5 and 13.2 dB. When the test/warning sound precedence varied within a range of 20 to 140 s, the threshold increase was negligible (2.9 dB). The observed hearing threshold increase was not a result of the unconditioned effect of the loud sound like a TTS, so it is considered as a manifestation of conditioned dampening of hearing when the subject anticipated the quick appearance of a loud sound, most likely to protect its hearing.
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Götz T, Janik VM. Repeated elicitation of the acoustic startle reflex leads to sensitisation in subsequent avoidance behaviour and induces fear conditioning. BMC Neurosci 2011; 12:30. [PMID: 21489285 PMCID: PMC3101131 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-12-30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 04/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autonomous reflexes enable animals to respond quickly to potential threats, prevent injury and mediate fight or flight responses. Intense acoustic stimuli with sudden onsets elicit a startle reflex while stimuli of similar intensity but with longer rise times only cause a cardiac defence response. In laboratory settings, habituation appears to affect all of these reflexes so that the response amplitude generally decreases with repeated exposure to the stimulus. The startle reflex has become a model system for the study of the neural basis of simple learning processes and emotional processing and is often used as a diagnostic tool in medical applications. However, previous studies did not allow animals to avoid the stimulus and the evolutionary function and long-term behavioural consequences of repeated startling remain speculative. In this study we investigate the follow-up behaviour associated with the startle reflex in wild-captured animals using an experimental setup that allows individuals to exhibit avoidance behaviour. RESULTS We present evidence that repeated elicitation of the acoustic startle reflex leads to rapid and pronounced sensitisation of sustained spatial avoidance behaviour in grey seals (Halichoerus grypus). Animals developed rapid flight responses, left the exposure pool and showed clear signs of fear conditioning. Once sensitised, seals even avoided a known food source that was close to the sound source. In contrast, animals exposed to non-startling (long rise time) stimuli of the same maximum sound pressure habituated and flight responses waned or were absent from the beginning. The startle threshold of grey seals expressed in units of sensation levels was comparable to thresholds reported for other mammals (93 dB). CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate that the acoustic startle reflex plays a crucial role in mediating flight responses and strongly influences the motivational state of an animal beyond a short-term muscular response by mediating long-term avoidance. The reflex is therefore not only a measure of emotional state but also influences emotional processing. The biological function of the startle reflex is most likely associated with mediating rapid flight responses. The data indicate that repeated startling by anthropogenic noise sources might have severe effects on long-term behaviour. Future, studies are needed to investigate whether such effects can be associated with reduced individual fitness or even longevity of individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Götz
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
| | - Vincent M Janik
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
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Ramp D, Foale CG, Roger E, Croft DB. Suitability of acoustics as non-lethal deterrents for macropodids: the influence of origin, delivery and anti-predator behaviour. WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2011. [DOI: 10.1071/wr11093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Context
Auditory devices used to deter wildlife are a potentially humane and effective way of minimising deleterious interactions with humans and their livelihoods and have been used successfully for many species around the world. Acoustic cues can be used to manipulate anti-predator behaviour, encouraging animals to forage elsewhere. Employing acoustics derived from natural sources to make use of innate behavioural responses has been suggested to outperform novel or artificial sounds; however, anti-predator strategies vary among sympatric species and will influence the utility of acoustic stimuli for deterring wildlife.
Aims
We aimed to test the interaction between the source of origin (natural or novel) and species traits (anti-predator strategy – grouping behaviour) on the efficacy of using acoustic stimuli to elicit alarm responses for two species in the family Macropodidae commonly associated with browsing on forest plantation seedlings; the red-necked pademelon (Thylogale thetis) and the red-necked wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus banksianus).
Methods
We tested these factors in captivity using playback experiments of acoustic stimuli and monitored the behavioural responses of subjects.
Results
Red-necked pademelons exhibited strong responses to bioacoustic and novel stimuli but did not greatly differentiate among them. Short-term habituation to predator calls was detected whereas responsiveness to novel sounds increased. Red-necked wallabies most strongly responded to conspecific distress calls, showing no sign of short-term habituation.
Conclusions
Results from the present and other studies suggest that bioacoustic deterrents, particularly those utilising natural conspecific sounds, aimed at communicating danger, have the potential to play an important role in non-lethal wildlife management, although that responsiveness varies with the form of anti-predator strategies employed.
Implications
If alarm responses translate into subjects vacating targeted areas, then there is some potential to implement non-lethal acoustic deterrents for macropodids alongside other management measures aimed at preventing impacts on primary production. Problematically, our experiments showed that without accurate acoustic delivery, particularly of sounds with infrasonic components, the development of effective bioacoustic deterrents may remain stymied.
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