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Kettunen O, Mikkonen R, Linnamo V, Mursu J, Kyröläinen H, Ihalainen JK. Nutritional intake and anthropometric characteristics are associated with endurance performance and markers of low energy availability in young female cross-country skiers. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2023; 20:2226639. [PMID: 37342913 DOI: 10.1080/15502783.2023.2226639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Low energy availability (LEA) can have negative performance consequences, but the relationships between LEA and performance are poorly understood especially in field conditions. In addition, little is known about the contribution of macronutrients to long-term performance. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate if energy availability (EA) and macronutrient intake in a field-based situation were associated with laboratory-measured performance, anthropometric characteristics, blood markers, training volume, and/or questionnaire-assessed risk of LEA in young female cross-country (XC) skiers. In addition, the study aimed to clarify which factors explained performance. METHODS During a one-year observational study, 23 highly trained female XC skiers and biathletes (age 17.1 ± 1.0 years) completed 3-day food and training logs on four occasions (September-October, February-March, April-May, July-August). Mean (±SD) EA and macronutrient intake from these 12 days were calculated to describe yearly overall practices. Laboratory measurements (body composition with bioimpedance, blood hormone concentrations, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), oxygen uptake (VO2) at 4 mmol·L-1 lactate threshold (OBLA), double poling (DP) performance (time to exhaustion), counter movement jump (height) and the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q)) were completed at the beginning (August 2020, M1) and end of the study (August 2021, M2). Annual training volume between measurements was recorded using an online training diary. RESULTS The 12-day mean EA (37.4 ± 9.1 kcal·kg FFM-1·d-1) and carbohydrate (CHO) intake (4.8 ± 0.8 g·kg-1·d-1) were suboptimal while intake of protein (1.8 ± 0.3 g·kg-1·d-1) and fat (31 ± 4 E%) were within recommended ranges. Lower EA and CHO intake were associated with a higher LEAF-Q score (r = 0.44, p = 0.042; r = 0.47, p = 0.026). Higher CHO and protein intake were associated with higher VO2max (r = 0.61, p = 0.005; r = 0.54, p = 0.014), VO2 at OBLA (r = 0.63, p = 0.003; r = 0.62, p = 0.003), and DP performance at M2 (r = 0.42, p = 0.051; r = 0.44, p = 0.039). Body fat percentage (F%) was negatively associated with CHO and protein intake (r = -0.50, p = 0.017; r = -0.66, p = 0.001). Better DP performance at M2 was explained by higher training volume (R2 = 0.24, p = 0.033) and higher relative VO2max and VO2 at OBLA at M2 by lower F% (R2 = 0.44, p = 0.004; R2 = 0.47, p = 0.003). Increase from M1 to M2 in DP performance was explained by a decrease in F% (R2 = 0.25, p = 0.029). CONCLUSIONS F%, and training volume were the most important factors explaining performance in young female XC skiers. Notably, lower F% was associated with higher macronutrient intake, suggesting that restricting nutritional intake may not be a good strategy to modify body composition in young female athletes. In addition, lower overall CHO intake and EA increased risk of LEA determined by LEAF-Q. These findings highlight the importance of adequate nutritional intake to support performance and overall health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oona Kettunen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
| | - Ritva Mikkonen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
| | - Vesa Linnamo
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
| | - Jaakko Mursu
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
| | - Heikki Kyröläinen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
| | - Johanna K Ihalainen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
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Walther J, Haugen T, Solli GS, Tønnessen E, Sandbakk Ø. From juniors to seniors: changes in training characteristics and aerobic power in 17 world-class cross-country skiers. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1288606. [PMID: 38054044 PMCID: PMC10694351 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1288606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To compare training characteristics and aerobic power (VO2max) between the most successful junior and senior seasons of world-class cross-country (XC) skiers and to identify differences between sexes and among sprint and distance skiers. Methods: Retrospective analysis was conducted on self-reported training and VO2max tests of ten male and seven female world-class XC-skiers, collectively holding 38 Olympic medals. Training was categorized by form (endurance, strength, speed, other) and mode (specific, unspecific) and was divided into low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT). Results: Total training increased by 203 ± 130 h (35% ± 31%, p < .001, large effect) and 78 ± 69 sessions (21% ± 24%, p < .001, very large effect). Junior training volume (658 ± 107 h) did not correlate with senior volume (861 ± 74 h) but correlated negatively with changes in volume (r = -.822, p < .001). No sex differences were observed related to total volume, but distance skiers increased their total volume more than sprint skiers (p = .037, large effect). Endurance training increased by 197 ± 117 h (p < .001; large effect) tied to increased low-intensity training (186 ± 115 h, p < .001; large effect) and moderate-intensity training (13 ± 7 h, p < .001; large effect). Training intensity distribution (% LIT/MIT/HIT) was 91/3/6 in junior and 92/4/4 in senior season. Women demonstrated greater increase of unspecific modes (100 ± 58 vs. 37 ± 44 h, p = .022; large effect) and strength training (25 ± 23 vs. -3 ± 17 h, p = .010, large effect). Men improved absolute (8% ± 5%; p = .009; large effect) and relative VO2max (6% ± 4%; p = .016; large effect) from junior to senior, while women only increased relative VO2max (7% ± 5%, p = .012; large effect). Conclusion: This study provides novel information regarding changes in training characteristics and aerobic power from junior to senior age in world-class XC-skiers. Overall, the enhanced training volume during this transition was primarily driven by increased LIT and MIT and the exceptionally high relative VO2max at junior age further increased in both sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Walther
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Norwegian Ski Federation, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Guro Strøm Solli
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Sport Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
| | | | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- School of Sport Science, UiT The Artic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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Andersson EP, Lögdal N, Byrne D, Jones TW. Physiological responses and performance factors for double-poling and diagonal-stride treadmill roller-skiing time-trial exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023; 123:2495-2509. [PMID: 37302104 PMCID: PMC10615977 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05239-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To compare physiological responses between a self-paced 4-min double-poling (DP) time-trial (TTDP) versus a 4-min diagonal-stride (DS) time-trial (TTDS). The relative importance of peak oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text]O2peak), anaerobic capacity, and gross efficiency (GE) for projection of 4-min TTDP and TTDS roller-skiing performances were also examined. METHODS Sixteen highly trained male cross-country skiers performed, in each sub-technique on separate occasions, an 8 × 4-min incremental submaximal protocol, to assess individual metabolic rate (MR) versus power output (PO) relationships, followed by a 10-min passive break and then the TTDP or TTDS, with a randomized order between sub-techniques. RESULTS In comparison to TTDS, the TTDP resulted in 10 ± 7% lower total MR, 5 ± 4% lower aerobic MR, 30 ± 37% lower anaerobic MR, and 4.7 ± 1.2 percentage points lower GE, which resulted in a 32 ± 4% lower PO (all P < 0.01). The [Formula: see text]O2peak and anaerobic capacity were 4 ± 4% and 30 ± 37% lower, respectively, in DP than DS (both P < 0.01). The PO for the two time-trial (TT) performances were not significantly correlated (R2 = 0.044). Similar parabolic pacing strategies were used during both TTs. Multivariate data analysis projected TT performance using [Formula: see text]O2peak, anaerobic capacity, and GE (TTDP, R2 = 0.974; TTDS, R2 = 0.848). The variable influence on projection values for [Formula: see text]O2peak, anaerobic capacity, and GE were for TTDP, 1.12 ± 0.60, 1.01 ± 0.72, and 0.83 ± 0.38, respectively, and TTDS, 1.22 ± 0.35, 0.93 ± 0.44, and 0.75 ± 0.19, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The results show that a cross-country skier's "metabolic profile" and performance capability are highly sub-technique specific and that 4-min TT performance is differentiated by physiological factors, such as [Formula: see text]O2peak, anaerobic capacity, and GE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik P Andersson
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
| | - Nestor Lögdal
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
- Centre for Musculoskeletal Research, Department of Occupational and Public Health Sciences, University of Gävle, Gävle, Sweden
| | - Darragh Byrne
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Thomas W Jones
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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Mathisen TF, Ackland T, Burke LM, Constantini N, Haudum J, Macnaughton LS, Meyer NL, Mountjoy M, Slater G, Sundgot-Borgen J. Best practice recommendations for body composition considerations in sport to reduce health and performance risks: a critical review, original survey and expert opinion by a subgroup of the IOC consensus on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs). Br J Sports Med 2023; 57:1148-1158. [PMID: 37752006 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2023-106812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The assessment of body composition (BC) in sport raises concern for athlete health, especially where an overfocus on being lighter or leaner increases the risk of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) and disordered eating. METHODS We undertook a critical review of the effect of BC on performance (29 longitudinal, prospective or intervention studies) and explored current practice related to BC considerations via a follow-up to a 2013 internationally distributed survey. RESULTS The review found that a higher level of body fat was negatively associated with endurance performance, while a gain in muscle mass resulted in performance benefits across sports. BC did not contribute to early talent identification, and no unique cut-off to signify a performance advantage for BC was identified. BC appears to be one of an array of variables impacting performance, and its influence should not be overstated. The survey (125 practitioners, 61 sports and 26 countries) showed subtle changes in BC considerations over time, such as an increased role for sport dietitian/nutrition practitioners as BC measurers (2013: 54%, 2022: 78%); less emphasis on reporting of body fat percentage (2013: 68%, 2022: 46%) and reduced frequency of BC assessment if ≥every fourth week (2013: 18%, 2022: 5%). Respondents remained concerned about a problematic focus on BC (2013: 69%, 2022: 78%). To address these findings, we provide detailed recommendations for BC considerations, including an overview of preferable BC methodology. CONCLUSIONS The 'best practice' guidelines stress the importance of a multidisciplinary athlete health and performance team, and the treatment of BC data as confidential medical information. The guidelines provide a health focus around BC, aiming to reduce the associated burden of disordered eating, problematic low energy availability and REDs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Timothy Ackland
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Louise M Burke
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Naama Constantini
- Sport Medicine, Shaare Zedek Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Judith Haudum
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Hallein-Rif, Salzburg, Austria
| | | | - Nanna L Meyer
- Department of Human Physiology and Nutrition, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA
| | - Margo Mountjoy
- Department of Family Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
- REDs Consensus Writing Group, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gary Slater
- School of Health, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
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Kettunen O, Mikkonen R, Mursu J, Linnamo V, Ihalainen JK. Carbohydrate intake in young female cross-country skiers is lower than recommended and affects competition performance. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1196659. [PMID: 37528891 PMCID: PMC10388101 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1196659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose (1) To evaluate if energy availability (EA), macronutrient intake and body composition change over four training periods in young, highly trained, female cross-country skiers, and (2) to clarify if EA, macronutrient intake, body composition, and competition performance are associated with each other in this cohort. Methods During a one-year observational study, 25 female skiers completed 3-day food and training logs during four training periods: preparation, specific preparation, competition, and transition periods. A body composition measurement (bioimpedance analyzer) was performed at the end of the preparation, specific preparation, and competition periods. Competition performance was determined by International Ski Federation (FIS) points gathered from youth national championships. Results EA (36-40 kcal·kg FFM-1·d-1) and carbohydrate (CHO) intake (4.4-5.1 g·kg-1·d-1) remained similar, and at a suboptimal level, between training periods despite a decrease in exercise energy expenditure (p = 0.002) in the transition period. Higher EA (r = -0.47, p = 0.035) and CHO intake (r = -0.65, p = 0.002) as well as lower FM (r = 0.60, p = 0.006) and F% (r = 0.57, p = 0.011) were associated with lower (better) FIS-points. CHO intake was the best predictor of distance competition performance (R2 = 0.46, p = 0.004). Conclusions Young female cross-country skiers had similar EA and CHO intake over four training periods. Both EA and CHO intake were at suboptimal levels for performance and recovery. CHO intake and body composition are important factors influencing competition performance in young female cross-country skiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oona Kettunen
- Sports Technology Unit Vuokatti, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
| | - Ritva Mikkonen
- Sports Technology Unit Vuokatti, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
| | - Jaakko Mursu
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Vesa Linnamo
- Sports Technology Unit Vuokatti, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Johanna K. Ihalainen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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Jones TW, Lindblom HP, Laaksonen MS, McGawley K. Using Multivariate Data Analysis to Project Performance in Biathletes and Cross-Country Skiers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023:1-12. [PMID: 37290762 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine whether competitive performance, as defined by International Biathlon Union (IBU) and International Ski Federation (FIS) points in biathlon and cross-country (XC) skiing, respectively, can be projected using a combination of anthropometric and physiological metrics. Shooting accuracy was also included in the biathlon models. METHODS Data were analyzed using multivariate methods from 45 (23 female and 22 male) biathletes and 202 (86 female and 116 male) XC skiers who were all members of senior national teams, national development teams, or ski-university or high school invite-only programs (age range: 16-36 y). Anthropometric and physiological characteristics were assessed via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and incremental roller-ski treadmill tests, respectively. Shooting accuracy was assessed via an outdoor standardized testing protocol. RESULTS Valid projective models were identified for female biathletes' IBU points (R2 = .80/Q2 = .65) and female XC skiers' FIS distance (R2 = .81/Q2 = .74) and sprint (R2 = .81/Q2 = .70) points. No valid models were identified for the men. The most important variables for the projection of IBU points were shooting accuracy, speeds at blood lactate concentrations of 4 and 2 mmol·L-1, peak aerobic power, and lean mass. The most important variables for the projection of FIS distance and sprint points were speeds at blood lactate concentrations of 4 and 2 mmol·L-1 and peak aerobic power. CONCLUSIONS This study highlights the relative importance of specific anthropometric, physiological, and shooting-accuracy metrics in female biathletes and XC skiers. The data can help to identify the specific metrics that should be targeted when monitoring athletes' progression and designing training plans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Jones
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
| | - Hampus P Lindblom
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
| | - Marko S Laaksonen
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
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Karlsson Ø, Danemar M, Laaksonen MS, McGawley K. Health problems in national team cross-country skiers over a competitive season: a 17-week prospective cohort study. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2022; 8:e001408. [PMID: 36304721 PMCID: PMC9594541 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2022-001408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Few long-term prospective studies have investigated health problems in elite competitive cross-country (XC) skiers. Hence, our objective was to compare the prevalence of health problems in national team XC skiers over a competitive season. METHODS Forty national team XC skiers participated in this prospective, observational study. Two groups were characterised according to performance level: senior (n=18, ~26 years old, 9 women) and development (n=22, ~21 years old, 9 women). The skiers reported all and substantial injuries and illnesses weekly for 17 consecutive weeks throughout the 2019/2020 competitive season using the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Center Questionnaire on Health Problems. RESULTS The average weekly prevalence of all and substantial health problems was 19% (95% CI: 16% to 22%) and 12% (95% CI: 9% to 15%), respectively, and was similar between senior and development level skiers (p>0.05). The injury prevalence was higher in senior versus development level skiers (12%, 95% CI: 9% to 15% vs 5%, 95% CI: 3% to 7%; p<0.001), while illnesses were less common (8%, 95% CI: 3% to 13% vs 13%, 95% CI: 9% to 17%, respectively; p=0.031). Illnesses accounted for 72% of all problems. The prevalence of all health problems was higher in female than in male skiers (23%, 95% CI: 19% to 27% vs 15%, 95% CI: 11% to 19%; p<0.003). CONCLUSIONS Health problems, especially illnesses, were relatively common, with approximately one in five skiers (19%) reporting at least one problem in any given week. Both performance level and sex influenced the prevalence of different types of health problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Øyvind Karlsson
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Magnus Danemar
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marko S Laaksonen
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
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Shang L, Sandbakk Ø, Shi R, Chen X, Talsnes RK. Analysis of a Skating Time-Trial Competition and Associated Performance-Determinants in Cross-Country Skiers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:11580. [PMID: 36141844 PMCID: PMC9517335 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph191811580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Purpose: To examine the contributions of time in different terrains and sub-technique distribution to overall time-trial performance, as well as the relationships of laboratory and field-based performance determinants in cross-country skiers. Methods: Fourteen male XC skiers were monitored during a 10 km (3 × 3.3 km) skating time-trial competition. On separate days, the skiers performed body composition assessments, laboratory tests while roller-ski skating and a 3 km uphill skating field test. Results: Time in uphill terrain was most strongly correlated with overall performance (r = 0.99, p < 0.01). G2 and G3 were the predominant sub-techniques (61% of overall time) with more use of G2 on lap three compared to lap one (p < 0.05). Body mass and lean mass were inversely correlated with overall and uphill performance (r = -0.60-0.75, all p < 0.05). VO2 at 4 mmol·L-1, VO2peak and TTE while roller-ski skating in the laboratory and the 3 km uphill skating field test correlated with overall performance (r = -0.66-0.85, all p < 0.05). Conclusions: Time in uphill terrain was the main contributor to overall performance, and G3 and G2 the most used sub-techniques with increased utilization of G2 throughout the competition. VO2peak and TTE while roller-ski skating in the laboratory and performance in an uphill skating field test had the strongest associations with time-trial performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Shang
- Institute of Competitive Sports, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
- Centre for Sports Research, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7030 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ruiying Shi
- National Academy of Economic Strategy, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing 100006, China
| | - Xiaoping Chen
- Institute of Competitive Sports, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
- Centre for Sports Research, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China
| | - Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Meråker High School, Trøndelag County Council, 7735 Steinkjer, Norway or rune.k.talsnes.nord.no
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, 8026 Bodø, Norway
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Sollie O, Losnegard T. Anthropometrical and Physiological Determinants of Laboratory and on-Snow Performance in Competitive Adolescent Cross-Country Skiers. Front Physiol 2022; 13:819979. [PMID: 35685288 PMCID: PMC9170917 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.819979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To explore the anthropometrical and physiological determinants of laboratory and on-snow performance in competitive adolescent cross-country skiers. Methods: Fifty-two adolescent (25 girls) (14.8 ± 0.6 years) skiers performed an uphill treadmill rollerski session using the G2 ski skating technique. Gross efficiency (GE) was calculated from a submaximal work bout (∼84% of peak oxygen uptake; V̇O2peak) while V̇O2peak, accumulated oxygen deficit (ΣO2def) and laboratory performance were determined from a 3-min time trial (TT3min) before upper- and lower-body maximum strength were tested. Pearson’s product moment correlations and multiple regression analysis explored the relationship with anthropometrical and physiological determinations of laboratory and on-snow performance in sprint (∼1 km, ∼2.5–3 min) and distance races (5–7.5 km, ∼12–20 min) from the national championship for this age-group. Results: A large correlation was found between on-snow sprint and distance performance (boys r = 0.61, girls r = 0.76, both p < 0.01) and for on-snow distance performance with TT 3min (r = 0.51 to 0.56, p < 0.05). V̇O2peak, ΣO2def and GE explained ∼80% of variations in performance in the TT3min, but substantial lower on-snow skiing performance (∼20–30%). For the TT3min performance, V̇O2peak showed a very large and large correlation for boys and girls (r = 0.76 and 0.65 respectively, both p < 0.01), ΣO2def showed a large correlation for boys and girls (r = 0.53 and 0.55 respectively, both p < 0.01) and age showed a large correlation for boys (r = 0.56, p < 0.01), with no significant correlation for girls (r = -0.19). For on-snow distance performance, V̇O2peak showed a large correlation for boys (r = 0.53, p < 0.01) and girls (r = 0.50, p < 0.05). For on-snow sprint performance, upper-body strength (r = 0.55, both sexes p < 0.01) and body mass index (BMI) showed a large correlation for boys (r = 0.53, p < 0.01) and girls (r = 0.51, p < 0.05). Conclusion: V̇O2peak is an important determinant for overall XC skiing performance in competitive male and female adolescent skiers. However, upper-body strength and BMI correlate the most with sprint performance. While laboratory performance can to a large extent be explained by physiological factors, on-snow-performance for adolescents is based more on multivariate factors (tactics, equipment’s, technique, racecourse etc.), implying the need for a holistic approach to understanding the sport-specific demands in such age-groups.
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Höök M, Bergström M, Sæther SA, McGawley K. "Do Elite Sport First, Get Your Period Back Later." Are Barriers to Communication Hindering Female Athletes? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182212075. [PMID: 34831828 PMCID: PMC8623003 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182212075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Competitive female athletes perceive their hormonal cycles to affect their training, competition performance and overall well-being. Despite this, athletes rarely discuss hormonal-cycle-related issues with others. The aim of this study was to gain an in-depth understanding of the perceptions and experiences of endurance athletes and their coaches in relation to barriers to athlete-coach communication about female hormonal cycles. Thirteen Swedish national-/international-level female cross-country skiers (age 25.8 ± 3.6 y) and eight of their coaches (two women and six men; age 47.8 ± 7.5 y) completed an online survey relating to their educational background, prior knowledge about female hormonal cycles and a coach-athlete relationship questionnaire (CART-Q). They then participated in an online education session about female hormonal cycles and athletic performance before participating in semi-structured focus-group interviews. Thematic analyses revealed three main barriers to communication: knowledge, interpersonal, and structural. In addition, the results suggested that a good coach-athlete relationship may facilitate open communication about female hormonal cycles, while low levels of knowledge may hinder communication. To overcome the perceived barriers to communication, a model is proposed to improve knowledge, develop interpersonal relationships and strengthen structural systems through educational exchanges and forums for open discussion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Höök
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, 831 25 Östersund, Sweden; (M.H.); (M.B.)
- Swedish Ski Association, 791 31 Falun, Sweden
| | - Max Bergström
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, 831 25 Östersund, Sweden; (M.H.); (M.B.)
| | - Stig Arve Sæther
- Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Dragvoll, 7491 Trondheim, Norway;
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, 831 25 Östersund, Sweden; (M.H.); (M.B.)
- Correspondence:
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