Pesticide safety training among farmworker adolescents from Starr County, Texas

Pesticide exposure among Latinx child farmworkers in North Carolina

BACKGROUND

Although pesticides have adverse effects on child health and development, little research has examined pesticide exposure among child farmworkers. This analysis addresses two specific aims: (1) describes pesticide exposure among Latinx child farmworkers in North Carolina, and (2) delineates factors associated with this pesticide exposure.

METHODS

In 2018 (n = 173) and 2019 (n = 156) Latinx child farmworkers completed interviews and wore silicone wristbands for a single day to measure pesticide exposure. Wristbands were analyzed for 70 pesticides.

RESULTS

Most Latinx child farmworkers were exposed to multiple pesticides; the most frequent were pyrethroids (69.9% in 2018, 67.9% in 2019), organochlorines (51.4% in 2018, 55.1% in 2019), and organophosphates (51.4% in 2018, 34.0% in 2019). Children were exposed to a mean of 2.15 pesticide classes in 2018 and 1.91 in 2019, and to a mean of 4.06 pesticides in 2018 and 3.34 in 2019. Younger children (≤15 years) had more detections than older children; children not currently engaged in farm work had more detections than children currently engaged in farm work. Migrant child farmworkers had more detections than nonmigrants. For specific pesticides with at least 20 detections, detections and concentrations were generally greater among children not currently engaged in farm work than children currently engaged.

CONCLUSIONS

Children who live in farmworker communities are exposed to a plethora of pesticides. Although further research is needed to document the extent of pesticide exposure and its health consequences, sufficient information is available to inform the policy needed to eliminate this pesticide exposure in agricultural communities.

Hired Latinx Child Farmworkers in North Carolina: Educational Status and Experience Through a Social Justice Lens

We examine the educational experience of Latinx hired child farmworkers in North Carolina, using a social justice framework. Qualitative (n = 30) and quantitative (n = 202) data collected among children ten to seventeen years of age revealed elevated rates of grade retention and dropout status. Children reported disruption to their schooling caused by international and interstate migration and intrastate movement. Few worked during school time; nevertheless, children reported missed participation in educational enrichment opportunities and little integration into school life. Schools often failed to accommodate language difficulties and problems caused by migration, and an atmosphere of racism prevailed. Educational programs for children in farmworker families were established during the 1960s. However, they do not meet the needs of hired child farmworkers. Policies to reduce child employment in agriculture and to meet their educational needs are necessary to ensure the education needed for future health and well-being. We discuss the applied implications of findings.

Work Safety Culture of Latinx Child Farmworkers in North Carolina

Background

Little research has addressed the safety environment of child farmworkers. This analysis examines the work safety culture experienced by Latinx child farmworkers in North Carolina.

Methods

Survey interviews were conducted in 2017 with 202 Latinx children aged 10 to 17 years employed on North Carolina farms. Analysis included measures of the behavioral, situational, and psychological elements of work safety culture.

Results

The work culture on North Carolina farms employing Latinx child farmworkers places limited value on safety. Behaviorally, many did not wear appropriate work clothing (e.g., 47.5% wore gloves, 37.1% wore boots). Situationally, few received safety training for tools (40.6%), machinery (24.3%), or pesticides (26.0%); about one-third (33.7%) had worked piece-rate; and many did not have field sanitation services available (e.g., 37.1% had water for washing, 19.8% had soap). Safety attitudes were mixed, and work safety climate was low, with 21.8% stating that their supervisor was only interested in doing the job fast and cheaply. Greater safety training, field sanitation services, and work safety climate were associated with working in western North Carolina, migrant workers, limited English fluency, and working in tomatoes. Wearing appropriate work clothing, not working piece-rate, fewer unsafe work attitudes were associated with working in eastern North Carolina, seasonal worker, speaking English, and working in tobacco.

Conclusions

This research makes it apparent that efforts are needed to improve safety culture wherever child farmworkers are employed. Current policy is not providing a safe environment for children working on farms in the United States.

Occupational Injuries of Latinx Child Farmworkers in North Carolina: Associations With Work Safety Culture

OBJECTIVE

This paper examines the association of occupational injuries with work safety culture among Latinx child farmworkers.

METHODS

Interviews were conducted in 2017 with 202 Latinx farmworkers aged 10 to 17 years.

RESULTS

Occupational injuries were common among the child farmworkers: for example, 66.8% reported any work injury and 45.5% reported heat-related illness. Work safety culture was inadequate; for example, most did not receive safety training, one-third reported having worked piece-rate; only a few field sanitation services were available, and perceived work safety climate was low. Work safety culture had a mixed association with occupational injuries, with safety training and a better perceived work safety climate having a direct association with occupational injuries.

CONCLUSIONS

Policy is needed to reduce child farmworker injuries. Strategies to improve the predictive value of the work safety culture model are required.

Health and Occupational Injury Experienced by Latinx Child Farmworkers in North Carolina, USA

Children as young as 10 years old are hired to work on farms in the United States (U.S.). These children are largely Latinx. Using interview data collected from 202 North Carolina Latinx child farmworkers in 2017, this analysis documents the heath characteristics and occupational injuries of Latinx child farmworkers and delineates characteristics associated with their health and occupational injuries. Latinx child farmworkers include girls (37.6%) and boys (62.4%), aged 10 to 17 years, with 17.8% being migrant farmworkers. Three-quarters reported receiving medical and dental care in the past year. Respiratory (15.8%) and vision (20.3%) problems were prevalent. Girls more than boys, and younger more than older children had greater health service utilization. Occupational injuries were common, with 26.2% reporting a traumatic injury, 44.1% a dermatological injury, 42.6% a musculoskeletal injury, and 45.5% heat-related illness in the past year. Age increased the odds of reporting work injuries and heat-related illness, and being a non-migrant reduced the odds of reporting work injuries. These results emphasize the need for greater documentation of child farmworker occupational health and safety. They underscore the need to change occupational safety policy to ensure that children working in agriculture have the same protections as those working in all other U.S. industries.

"Be careful!" Perceptions of work-safety culture among hired Latinx child farmworkers in North Carolina

BACKGROUND

Children as young as 10 years of age can be hired to work on farms. Many of these hired child farmworkers are Latinx. Although these children experience high rates of injury, little research has addressed work-safety perceptions among hired Latinx child farmworkers.

METHODS

For this qualitative study, we conducted in-depth interviews in North Carolina in 2016 with 30 Latinx child farmworkers, ages 10 to 17. Our analysis used the work-safety culture conceptual framework to delineate their perceptions of the psychological, behavioral, and situational elements of safety culture.

RESULTS

The child farmworkers describe a weak work-safety culture. Psychologically, they understand that their parents want them to be safe, but they observe that safety is important to only a fraction of their supervisors and coworkers. Behaviorally, they recognize many of the hazards they confront while working, but it is not clear how well they use this knowledge to mitigate these hazards or to change their behaviors to avoid these hazards. Situationally, several children note that the only safety training they receive is the imperative to "be careful." Most receive little formal training, much of the training they receive is informally provided by family members and coworkers rather than supervisors, and their training is geared more toward how to complete a task than how to complete the task safely.

CONCLUSIONS

Child farmworkers perceive that work-safety culture is of limited importance in agriculture. Regulations are needed that improve work-safety culture in agriculture, especially for those vulnerable due to minority age.

Hired Latinx child farm labor in North Carolina: The demand-support-control model applied to a vulnerable worker population

BACKGROUND

US government child labor policies allow children as young as age 10 to be hired as workers on farms not operated by family members. Children may face substantial health risks in an industry known for high worker morbidity and mortality rates, due to high demands for productivity, and low control and little support because of the organization of the workplace. This paper examines how child farmworkers in North Carolina experience their work situation.

METHODS

In-depth interviews conducted in 2016 with 30 Latinx child farmworkers, ages 10 to 17, were analyzed using concepts from the demand-control-support model. All had worked as either migrant or seasonal hired farmworkers within the past year.

RESULTS

Children reported planting, cultivating, and harvesting crops including fruits, vegetables, and tobacco. The crew leader supervisory system, piece-rate pay, and coworker pressure produced significant demands to work quickly and take risks including lifting heavy loads, operating mechanical equipment, and working in excessive heat. Children had little control over work to counter demands they experienced; and they labored in a state of fear of firing, wage theft, and other sanctions. Support was variable, with younger children more likely to experience family and coworker support than older children.

CONCLUSIONS

The high demands with limited control and, for some, little support, that these children experience place them at risk and show the possibility of injury and exploitation. Future research should systematically document the occupational injury and illness of hired child farmworkers, and consider whether changes in labor policy are warranted.

Attending to Pesticide Exposure and Heat Illness Among Farmworkers: Results From an Attention Placebo-Controlled Evaluation Design

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of curricula for improving knowledge and attitudes pertaining to pesticide exposure and heat illness among immigrant Latino farmworkers.

METHODS

A pesticide safety curriculum informed by the revised Worker Protection Standard (WPS) was tested against an attention placebo-controlled curriculum (heat illness) in a sample of Latino farmworkers (N = 127).

RESULTS

Pesticide safety knowledge increased in the overall sample, but did not differ by curriculum assignment. Pesticide safety behavioral intentions increased among participants in the pesticide safety curriculum but decreased among those in the other curriculum (P < 0.05). Heat illness knowledge and behavioral intentions increased more for farmworkers assigned to the heat illness than the pesticide safety curriculum.

CONCLUSION

The developed curricula show good promise for meeting the spirit of the revised WPS and for reducing the burden of heat-related fatality and morbidity among Latino farmworkers.

Latinx child farmworkers in North Carolina: Study design and participant baseline characteristics

BACKGROUND

Although children as young as 10 years can work in agriculture, little research has addressed their occupational health. This paper describes a large, multicomponent study of hired Latinx child farmworkers, and the characteristics of children participating in this study.

METHODS

Survey interviews were conducted in 2017 with 202 Latinx children aged 10-17 years employed in agriculture across North Carolina (NC).

RESULTS

Most (81.2%) participants were born in the United States, 37.6% were female, and 21.3% were aged 10-13 years. Most (95.1%) were currently enrolled in school. Thirty-six (17.8%) were migrant workers. 34.7% had worked in agriculture for 1 year; 18.3% had worked 4+ years. 33.7% worked piece rate. 57.4% worked in tobacco. Participants in western NC differed in personal and occupational characteristics from those in eastern NC.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has enrolled a large and diverse child farmworker sample. This overview indicates several important issues for further analysis.

Safety and injury characteristics of youth farmworkers in North Carolina: a pilot study

Agriculture is a unique US industry in how youth are involved. Youth employed in agriculture experience high rates of injury, and youth migrant and seasonal farmworkers may be extremely vulnerable. The primary aim for this analysis is to describe the personal characteristics, work characteristics, occupational safety behaviors, and occupational injuries of North Carolina youth farmworkers. This pilot study uses data from interviewer-administered questionnaires with 87 youth farmworkers. Participants included males (62.1%) and females (37.9%), with 26.4% aged 10-13 years, 39.1% 14-15 years, and 34.5% 16-17 years. The majority (78.2%) were born in the United States. Most worked in tobacco (46.0%), sweet potatoes (28.7%), and berries (28.7%). They were paid by the hour (54.0%) and piece rate (55.2%); 21.8% reported a problem getting paid the amount earned. Three quarters wore a hat, and 63.2% wore gloves while working. Five (5.7%) had received pesticide use training in the past year. Over half reported a musculoskeletal injury (54.0%), a traumatic injury (60.9%), or a dermatological injury (72.4%) in the last year. Six of the injuries led to medical treatment, and 10 resulted in missed school or work. Farmworker youth in North Carolina are at times not treated fairly when they work, occupational safety behaviors are limited (increasing exposure to pesticides and other environmental hazards), and they commonly experience injuries. Research on the occupational exposures and health experienced by youth farmworkers is needed to inform policy. Changes in policy are warranted to improve the safety of youth farmworkers.

Work safety culture of youth farmworkers in North Carolina: a pilot study

OBJECTIVES

We analyzed aspects of the behavioral, situational, and psychological elements of work safety culture of hired youth farmworkers in North Carolina.

METHODS

Data were from interviewer-administered questionnaires completed with 87 male and female hired farmworkers aged 10 to 17 years in North Carolina in 2013. We computed means, SDs, and Cronbach α values for the perceived work safety climate and safety perception summary scores.

RESULTS

Hired youth farmworkers in North Carolina described a negative work safety culture. Most engaged in unsafe general and unsafe work behaviors, few received training, and many were sexually harassed at work. They had mixed safety attitudes and knew that their employment was precarious. They reported a poor perceived work safety climate characterized by the perception that their supervisors "are only interested in doing the job fast and cheaply." However, we could not detect statistically significant associations between work safety culture and injuries among these farmworkers.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased scrutiny of agriculture as a suitable industry for workers as young as 10 years and additional regulations to protect hired youth farmworkers, if not to remove them from this environment, are warranted. Additional research is needed.

Oregon indigenous farmworkers: results of promotor intervention on pesticide knowledge and organophosphate metabolite levels

OBJECTIVES

To examine changes in health beliefs, pesticide safety knowledge, and biomarkers of pesticide exposure in indigenous farmworkers who received enhanced pesticide safety training compared with those receiving the standard training.

METHODS

Farmworkers in Oregon were randomly assigned to either a promotors pesticide safety training program or a standard video-based training. Spot urine samples were analyzed for dialkyl phosphate urinary metabolites. Pre-/postintervention questionnaires were used to measure pesticide safety knowledge, health beliefs, and work practices.

RESULTS

Baseline to follow-up improvements in total pesticide knowledge scores were higher in the promotor group than in the standard video group. Pairwise differences in mean concentrations of dialkyl phosphate metabolite levels showed declines from baseline to follow-up for both intervention groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Results showed reductions in pesticide exposure in indigenous-language speaking farmworkers who received enhanced pesticide safety training.

Pesticide exposure in children

Pesticides are a collective term for a wide array of chemicals intended to kill unwanted insects, plants, molds, and rodents. Food, water, and treatment in the home, yard, and school are all potential sources of children's exposure. Exposures to pesticides may be overt or subacute, and effects range from acute to chronic toxicity. In 2008, pesticides were the ninth most common substance reported to poison control centers, and approximately 45% of all reports of pesticide poisoning were for children. Organophosphate and carbamate poisoning are perhaps the most widely known acute poisoning syndromes, can be diagnosed by depressed red blood cell cholinesterase levels, and have available antidotal therapy. However, numerous other pesticides that may cause acute toxicity, such as pyrethroid and neonicotinoid insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and rodenticides, also have specific toxic effects; recognition of these effects may help identify acute exposures. Evidence is increasingly emerging about chronic health implications from both acute and chronic exposure. A growing body of epidemiological evidence demonstrates associations between parental use of pesticides, particularly insecticides, with acute lymphocytic leukemia and brain tumors. Prenatal, household, and occupational exposures (maternal and paternal) appear to be the largest risks. Prospective cohort studies link early-life exposure to organophosphates and organochlorine pesticides (primarily DDT) with adverse effects on neurodevelopment and behavior. Among the findings associated with increased pesticide levels are poorer mental development by using the Bayley index and increased scores on measures assessing pervasive developmental disorder, inattention, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Related animal toxicology studies provide supportive biological plausibility for these findings. Additional data suggest that there may also be an association between parental pesticide use and adverse birth outcomes including physical birth defects, low birth weight, and fetal death, although the data are less robust than for cancer and neurodevelopmental effects. Children's exposures to pesticides should be limited as much as possible.

Pesticide exposure in children

This statement presents the position of the American Academy of Pediatrics on pesticides. Pesticides are a collective term for chemicals intended to kill unwanted insects, plants, molds, and rodents. Children encounter pesticides daily and have unique susceptibilities to their potential toxicity. Acute poisoning risks are clear, and understanding of chronic health implications from both acute and chronic exposure are emerging. Epidemiologic evidence demonstrates associations between early life exposure to pesticides and pediatric cancers, decreased cognitive function, and behavioral problems. Related animal toxicology studies provide supportive biological plausibility for these findings. Recognizing and reducing problematic exposures will require attention to current inadequacies in medical training, public health tracking, and regulatory action on pesticides. Ongoing research describing toxicologic vulnerabilities and exposure factors across the life span are needed to inform regulatory needs and appropriate interventions. Policies that promote integrated pest management, comprehensive pesticide labeling, and marketing practices that incorporate child health considerations will enhance safe use.

Uso de agrotóxicos na produção de soja do estado do Mato Grosso: um estudo preliminar de riscos ocupacionais e ambientais

OBJETIVO: identificar e discutir alguns dos principais riscos associados ao uso de agrotóxicos na produção de soja do estado de Mato Grosso. MÉTODO: estudo exploratório descritivo, de caráter preliminar, realizado entre 2008 e 2009 e baseado em triangulação metodológica que incluiu: análise de banco de dados agrícola; análise de indicadores biológicos da exposição a agrotóxicos; e análise da contaminação de água de chuva por esses agentes químicos. RESULTADOS: a análise dos dados de consumo mostra um elevado e crescente uso de agrotóxicos, em particular o do herbicida glifosato. A análise da água de chuva mostrou presença de resíduos de diferentes agrotóxicos, ampliando o risco para além do ambiente de trabalho. Essa exposição ambiental foi detectada pela análise de indicadores biológicos de exposição a agrotóxicos junto a trabalhadores e moradores de áreas próximas às zonas de plantio. CONCLUSÃO: os dados do estudo apontam para a necessidade de um monitoramento ambiental e de saúde permanente em áreas produtoras de soja como parte das estratégias de vigilância em saúde do trabalhador e ambiental.

Working for mom and dad: are teens more likely to get injured working in family-owned businesses?

Recent controversy regarding the issue of children working in family-owned businesses has come to the forefront, pitting safety and health versus parent's right to teach their children the family trade. While studies have characterized injury among working teens, no studies have assessed work and injury among teens employed in family-owned businesses. This study is the first to examine teenagers working in family-owned businesses and to compare the experiences of teens working in family-businesses to the experiences of other working teens. A questionnaire was distributed to 8,085 teens in high schools throughout the five public health regions of Wisconsin. A total of 6, 810 teens responded (84%). Overall 2,858 high school teens aged 14-17 reported working (42%); of which 963 (34%) worked in a family-business. Teens working in family-businesses were more likely to report that their injury was severe, affecting their activities for more than three days, compared with other working teens (33% vs. 21%, P = 0.05). The percentage of teens working in family-businesses that reported broken bones or crushed body parts was 17% compared to only 5% of other-working teens. Additionally, teens employed in family-businesses were more likely to file for workers' compensation (28% vs. 12%, P = 0.005). Teens working in family-owned businesses may be at a greater risk for more severe injury based on the jobs and tasks they are doing. Teens working in family-owned businesses were more likely to report engaging in dangerous tasks, including some that are illegal under the Hazardous Occupation Orders. More research is needed to assess the dynamics that exist for teens working in family-owned businesses.

"Pesticides protect the fruit, but not the people": using community-based ethnography to understand farmworker pesticide-exposure risks

OBJECTIVES

We used community-based ethnography and public health risk assessment to assess beliefs about pesticide exposure risks among farmworkers in the Lower Yakima Valley of Washington State.

METHODS

We used unstructured and semistructured interviews, work-site observation, and detailed field notes to gather data on pesticide exposure risks from 99 farmworkers.

RESULTS

Farmworkers' pesticide-relevant beliefs and attitudes could be grouped into 5 major themes: (1) dry pesticides are often perceived as a virtually harmless powder, (2) farmworkers who identify themselves as allergic to pesticides are more acutely affected by exposure, (3) the effect of pesticide exposure is more severe for those perceived as physically weak, (4) protective equipment is used selectively in response to financial pressure to work rapidly, and (5) some farmworkers delay decontamination until they find water deemed an appropriate temperature for handwashing.

CONCLUSIONS

We elucidated farmworkers' pesticide-relevant beliefs regarding perceived danger and susceptibility to pesticides, the need to put safety second to financial considerations, and reasons for delaying decontamination. Researchers and policymakers should incorporate these data in study designs and legislation concerned with farmworker exposure to pesticides.

Occupational behaviors and farmworkers' pesticide exposure: findings from a study in Monterey County, California

BACKGROUND

We studied the relationship between behaviors promoted through the US Environmental Protection Agency Worker Protection Standard (WPS) and other programs and agricultural pesticide exposures in 73 strawberry fieldworkers employed in Monterey County, California.

METHODS

Farmworkers' behaviors were assessed via self-report and organophosphorus (OP) pesticide exposure was measured using dimethyl alkylphosphate (DMAP) and malathion dicarboxylic acid (MDA) urinary metabolite levels.

RESULTS

Wearing WPS-recommended clothing, wearing clean work clothes, and the combination of handwashing with soap and wearing gloves were associated with decreases in DMAP and MDA metabolite levels. Despite these protective behaviors, however, participants had significantly higher levels of exposure as compared with a national reference sample.

CONCLUSIONS

Interventions that facilitate compliance with these behaviors may be effective in decreasing fieldworkers' pesticide exposures. However, further efforts are needed to reduce the exposure disparities experienced by farmworkers and decrease the potential for "take home" exposures to farmworkers' families.