Self-reported symptoms after initiation of a protease inhibitor in HIV-infected patients and their impact on adherence to HAART

Psychometric characteristics of the Spanish version of the HIV Symptom Index

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to determine the psychometric properties of the Spanish-language version of the HIV-Symptom Index (HIV-SI) questionnaire in Spanish patients undergoing antiretroviral therapy.

METHODS

Between 2014 and 2016, an observational, multicenter, prospective cohort study was conducted in seventeen Spanish hospitals to validate HIV-SI questionnaire in terms of: construct validity (confirmatory factor analysis), internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha), convergent validity (Pearson's correlation coefficient) and Known-group validity. In addition, a sensitivity to change analysis was also performed.

RESULTS

A total of 232 patients were included in the study. They had a mean age of 46.17 (SD9.82) and were 75% male. The median overall score for the HIV-SI was 10 (IQR 4- 19.5) and the most common symptoms reported were feelings of nervousness or anxiety, fatigue or energy loss, feeling sad or depressed, stomach pain or bloating, and difficulty sleeping. In the current study, the Spanish HIV-SI questionnaire showed a high internal consistency (α = 0.89) and adequate construct validity (CFI and TLI > 0.90). When contrasted with the MOS-HIV questionnaire, an inverse correlation was found. It showed a good association with the mental (r=-0.61; P < 0.0001) and physical score (r=-0.60; P < 0.0001). In a multivariate analysis, the age of the patient, female condition, hepatitis C coinfection, concomitant treatment and non-adherence resulted in a higher HIV-SI score.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study has shown that the Spanish HIV-SI is a valid and reliable self-administered PROM for routine measurement of patient- reported symptoms among Spanish patients on antiretroviral treatment.

Adherence, Adverse Events and Viral Control among Children and Adolescents with HIV in Zambia Switched to an Integrase Inhibitor Regimen

Background

Based on recent World Health Organization recommendations, there has been a large-scale transition in Sub-Saharan Africa to integrase inhibitor (II)-based antiretroviral therapy (ART) regimens.

Setting

This study was conducted at an urban referral center in Lusaka, Zambia.

Methods

This study included 297 children and adolescents with HIV (CAWH) on ART for one year prior to enrollment and followed for 1-4 years after enrollment. ART adherence, ART regimen, and viral load were assessed periodically. Structured interviews were conducted with a subset of 95 children to assess adherence barriers and side effects.

Results

Children on protease inhibitor (PI)-based regimens were more likely to report adherence problems than children taking II- or Efavirenz-based regimens (10% vs. 28%, p=0.03) and noted more days with missed doses (median 1 vs. 0, p=0.02). In interviews, the most common reasons given for poor adherence included bad medication taste, not being home when medications were due, and perceived side effects. The PI group was more likely to report that taste was a problem affecting adherence (22% vs. 4%, p=0.05) and headache as an ART side effect (17% vs. 4%, p=0.05). Switching from a PI- to an II-based regimen was associated with improved adherence (72% vs. 92%, p=0.01) and an undetectable viral load (67% vs. 78%).

Conclusions

Switching CAWH from PI-based to II-based regimens has many advantages including superior side effect profiles, adherence, and viral suppression. PI taste aversion may be a significant contributor to pediatric adherence issues. Palatability should be considered in pediatric HIV drug development.

Clinical benefits of novel non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors: A prospective cohort study

INTRODUCTION

The efficacy and safety of ainuovirine+lamivudine+tenofovir (ANV+3TC+TDF) and efavirenz+lamivudine+tenofovir (EFV+3TC+TDF) have been confirmed in previous clinical trials; however, there are no related studies on patient-reported outcomes. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of these 2 antiretroviral therapy regimens and to understand the patient's symptom experience and subjective experience of sleep quality through patient-reported outcomes.

METHODS

This is a single-center prospective cohort study with 243 patients evaluated from October 1, 2021 to June 30, 2022. Virological effectiveness and patient-reported outcomes results were analyzed. The primary endpoint was the proportion of HIV viral load <50 copies/mL (virological suppression rate) at 48 weeks and the changes in the HIV symptom index and Pittsburgh sleep quality index.

RESULTS

The virological suppression rates in the ANV+3TC+TDF and EFV+3TC+TDF groups were 83.6% (102/122) and 87.6% (106/121), respectively, at 48 weeks. In the ANV+3TC+TDF group, the scores of HIV symptom index and pittsburgh sleep quality index in the 48th week were lower than the baseline level (p < 0.05). Logistic regression results showed that the baseline regimen EFV+3TC+TDF was a risk factor for dizziness/lightheadedness (odds ratio = 3.153, 95% confidence interval: 1.473-6.748, p = 0.003), sadness/depression odds ratio = 2.404, 95% confidence interval:1.188-4.871, p = 0.015), and difficulty sleeping (odds ratio = 2.802, 95% confidence interval: 1.437-5.463, p = 0.002) at 48 weeks.

CONCLUSIONS

Both regimens showed good virological effectiveness; however, compared with ANV+3TC+TDF, the EFV+3TC+TDF regimen reduced the prevalence of HIV-related symptoms.

Evaluating Barriers to Viral Suppression among People with HIV in Santiago, Dominican Republic

The Dominican Republic (DR) has the second-highest prevalence of HIV infection in the Caribbean, but viral suppression and treatment adherence are not well understood. We conducted a cross-sectional study among people living with HIV/AIDS(PLWHA) to fill in the knowledge gap. Questionnaire was used to collect demographic data, antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence, and barriers and facilitators to HIV care. Viral load and other clinical information were extracted through chart reviews. Descriptive analyzes and logistic regression were conducted to explore factors associated with non-viral suppression and imperfect ART adherence. Of 193 PLWHA 83.9% were virally suppressed. Those that were non-virally suppressed were more likely of being male (odds ratio [OR]: 2.55, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.17-5.58) and less likely of being unemployed (OR: 0.28, 95% CI: 0.08-0.96). However, being male (OR: 0.78, 95% CI:0.40-1.53) and unemployed (OR: 0.28, 95% CI:0. 08-1.21) were less likely to report imperfect adherence. Tailored interventions are needed to improve adherence and viral suppression in DR.

[Implication of bronchopulmonary cancer patients in thoracic oncology]

Changed relationships between patient and health care provider have given patients a greater role in their care. Nowadays, they have the opportunity to be involved in decision-making regarding any diagnostic, therapeutic or monitoring intervention related to their disease. Access to international scientific data through the web, the activity of different patient associations, and the information given by their referring physician can enrich their knowledge about their disease and its possible treatments. In addition to the objective criteria usually assessed, the role currently assumed by patient associations in clinical research helps to identify their expectations. In addition, a number of new tools allow the thoracic oncologist to better understand patients' wishes. Health authorities' use of patient-reported outcomes and patients' use of digital applications contribute to improved survival without any deleterious impact on quality of life. Web applications designed to monitor a patient's toxicities during treatment are now commercially available. To meet our patients' expectations, we are called upon to incorporate these different digital tools into our daily practice.

Chronic Cystoisospora belli infection in a Colombian patient living with HIV and poor adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy

Cystoisospora belli is an intestinal Apicomplexan parasite associated with diarrheal illness and disseminated infections in humans, mainly immunocompromised individuals such as those living with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). An irregular administration of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in HIV patients may increase the risk of opportunistic infections like cystoisosporiasis. We describe here a case of C. belli infection in a Colombian HIV patient with chronic gastrointestinal syndrome and poor adherence to HAART. His clinical and parasitological cure was achieved with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole treatment. Although a reduction in the number of C. belli cases has been observed since the use of HAART, this parasite still has to be considered as a differential diagnosis of diarrheal disease in HIV/AIDS patients. Effective interventions enhancing adherence to HAART should be included in HIV patient care programs.

Contribution of HIV/AIDS-Related Human and Social Sciences Research to a Better Understanding of the Challenges of Hepatitis B Prevention, Diagnosis and Care

Recent scientific advances in hepatitis B virus research hint at the possibility of finding a cure in the medium term. In this context, the characterization of infected persons constitutes a major public health issue in terms of implementing adapted screening and prevention strategies. Overcoming the current challenges national health systems face in hepatitis B diagnosis is essential if the World Health Organization's target of treating 80% of infected patients by 2030 is to be reached. These challenges reflect those previously faced in the fight against HIV/AIDS. Using the knowledge produced to date in Human and Social Sciences research in the fight against HIV/AIDS, we propose avenues of reflection to support and guide the development of research in the diagnosis of hepatitis B infection. More specifically, we present theoretical, methodological and epistemological considerations for how HSS research can be optimized in the following three HBV diagnosis-related areas: (i) access to screening; (ii) retention in care; and (iii) the integration of quality of life measurement in clinical trials.

Management of Antiretroviral Therapy with Boosted Protease Inhibitors-Darunavir/Ritonavir or Darunavir/Cobicistat

A major challenge in the management of antiretroviral therapy (ART) is to improve the patient's adherence, reducing the burden caused by the high number of drugs that compose the treatment regimens for human immunodeficiency virus positive (HIV+) patients. Selection of the most appropriate treatment regimen is responsible for therapeutic success and aims to reduce viremia, increase the immune system response capacity, and reduce the incidence rate and intensity of adverse reactions. In general, protease inhibitor (PI) is one of the pillars of regimens, and darunavir (DRV), in particular, is frequently recommended, along with low doses of enzyme inhibitors as cobicistat (COBI) or ritonavir (RTV), by the international guidelines. The potential of clinically significant drug interactions in patients taking COBI or RTV is high due to the potent inhibitory effect on cytochrome CYP 450, which attracts significant changes in the pharmacokinetics of PIs. Regardless of the patient or type of virus, the combined regimens of DRV/COBI or DRV/RTV are available to clinicians, proving their effectiveness, with a major impact on HIV mortality/morbidity. This study presents current information on the pharmacokinetics, pharmacology, drug interactions, and adverse reactions of DRV; it not only compares the bioavailability, pharmacokinetic parameters, immunological and virological responses, but also the efficacy, advantages, and therapeutic disadvantages of DRV/COBI or DRV/RTV combinations.

Patient Self-Reported Adherence to Ritonavir-Boosted Darunavir Combined With Either Raltegravir or Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate/Emtricitabine in the NEAT001/ANRS143 Trial

Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text.

Background:

The NEAT001/ANRS143 trial demonstrated noninferiority of ritonavir-boosted darunavir combined with either raltegravir (RAL + DRV/r) or tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine (TDF/FTC + DRV/r) in HIV-positive, antiretroviral-naive adults. In post hoc analyses, however, RAL + DRV/r showed inferiority in patients with baseline CD4⁺ <200/mm³ and HIV-1 RNA ≥100,000 copies per milliliter. This preplanned ancillary study was conducted to assess whether differences in adherence might explain efficacy results.

Setting:

Phase III, open-label, randomized, multicenter study in 15 European countries (ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01066962).

Methods:

Seven hundred seventy-four participants self-reported adherence (modified AIDS Clinical Trials Group questionnaire) over 96 weeks [383 RAL + DRV/r (twice daily; 5 pills/day), 391 TDF/FTC + DRV/r (once daily; 4 pills/day)]. Primary endpoint was ≥95% versus <95% adherence to prescribed doses recorded (1) over the last 4 days or (2) on the visual analogue scale over the last 30 days.

Results:

Characteristics, except age, were similar between arms; 9% had CD4⁺ <200 cells/mm³ and HIV-1 RNA ≥100,000 copies per milliliter. Adherence ≥95% in the last 4 days (P = 0.029) or at the visual analogue scale (P = 0.0072) was higher with TDF/FTC + DRV/r than with RAL + DRV/r. Adherence ≥95% over the last 4 days was associated with lower probability of virological failure (P = 0.015). Adherence in patients with baseline CD4⁺ <200 cells/mm³ and HIV-1 RNA ≥100,000 copies per milliliter was similar to the rest of the population, and not significantly associated with efficacy measures, with no significant differences between arms.

Conclusion:

Adherence was high and slightly better in the TDF/FTC + DRV/r than in the RAL + DRV/r arm. No convincing evidence was found that higher failure rate in the RAL + DRV/r arm in the subgroup with worse baseline viroimmunological status is caused by adherence differences.

Predictors of adherence to antiretroviral therapy among PLHIV

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) is of paramount importance to achieve the optimum control of viral load and progression of disease among people living with HIV (PLHIV). An overview of systematic reviews to summarize the factors influencing adherence to ART was not found in the literature; hence, the systematic review of systematic reviews was conducted to provide global view of factors influencing adherence to ART. Systematic reviews ever published till May 2018 were searched and retrieved between May 2015 and May 2018 from Cochrane and PubMed databases. Among 88 studies initially chosen based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, 22 were selected for further analysis. Qualitative analysis of included reviews was made through narrative synthesis approach. Results of the study show that among the 60 factors enlisted, 5 were most highly significant, 7 were highly significant, 19 were moderately significant, and 29 were emerged as significant factors. Substance abuse, financial constraints, social support, HIV stigma, and depressive symptoms were the most highly significant factors influencing the adherence, whereas age, employment status, long distance, side effects of drugs, pill burden, education, and mental health were regarded as highly significant factors influencing ART. Fatigue, away from home, being too busy in other things, simply forgot, and beliefs about the necessity of ART emerged as significant factors. The study concludes that findings from the overview give global insight into the factors determining adherence to ART which would further influence the innovations, program, and policy-making to mitigate the problem of nonadherence.

The missing link: exploring the intersection of gender, capabilities, and depressive symptoms in the context of chronic HIV

Depressive symptoms occur frequently among people living with HIV, especially women. These symptoms are associated with human, social, financial, and physical/natural capabilities and life stressors that differ between women and men. However, the link between depressive symptoms and functional limitations/disability is seldom discussed in the context of HIV, especially for gender-specific relationships. A cross-sectional survey of 1042 people living with HIV and using long-term antiretroviral therapy (ART) in South Africa was conducted from June to August 2014 to investigate the associations of disability, human, social, physical/natural, and financial capabilities, health, and adherence to ART, including possible gender-specific factors. Socio-demographic information, capabilities, health indicators, functional limitations/disability, and depressive symptoms (CES-D 10) were measured. We applied descriptive and bivariate statistics and multiple regression. Overall, 26% of people presented with depressive symptoms. Greater functional limitations and health symptoms and lower food security were strongly associated with depressive symptoms, while associations with financial capital and body mass index were gender-specific. The results call for the improvement of comprehensive care, including gender-sensitive mental health interventions. The results further indicate that functional limitations/disability needs to be considered, along with linking rehabilitation and livelihood programs with comprehensive HIV-care, in particular for those who experience depressive symptoms.

Looking at antiretroviral adherence through a disability lens: a cross-sectional analysis of the intersection of disability, adherence, and health status

Background: Antiretroviral adherence is vital to the successful long-term rollout of the antiretroviral therapy program in South Africa. At present, there are no studies that look at the effects of disability on antiretroviral adherence.Methods: Drawing on the baseline data from an existing cohort of 1042 people on antiretrovirals in a public healthcare setting in KwaZulu-Natal, the paper investigated a variety of existing covariates relating to antiretroviral adherence, together with functional limitations, depressive symptoms, and health symptoms. Disability was defined according to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health framework and measured using the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule.Results: In a proportional odds logistic regression functional limitations, depressive symptoms, health symptoms and gender emerged as significant associated with decreased adherence to antiretrovirals (Odds ratio [95% confidence interval]: 1.86 [1.31, 2.66], 1.61 [1.02, 2.55], 2.33 [1.47, 3.69], and 1.65 [1.16, 2.35], respectively). This was found for both severe and milder forms of functional limitations/disability.Conclusion: The paper highlights the need to better understand the role of these limitations in achieving adequate adherence to antiretrovirals and viral suppression. It also calls for investigations into integrated mitigating services such as integrating rehabilitation into routine human immunodeficiency virus care.Implications for RehabilitationThis study provides a starting point to understand the association between functional limitations and challenges in maintaining adherence to antiretroviral therapy.Addressing functional limitations is currently a neglected factor in efforts targeting HIV-treatment adherence and retention.Rehabilitation is a key intervention that could address this gap.Even mild forms of disability can have profound effects on adherence to antiretroviral therapy, which highlights the need for better screening, early identification, and referrals to rehabilitative support and treatment.

Disability and health outcomes - from a cohort of people on long-term anti-retroviral therapy

Human-immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/Acquired immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) remains a major health problem in South Africa - even after two decades since the introduction of antiretroviral therapy (ART). Long-term survival with HIV is associated with new health-related issues and a risk of functional limitation/disability. The aim of this study was to assess functional limitation associated with HIV/AIDS among people living with HIV (PLHIV) in South Africa. This study is a cross-sectional survey using a cohort in an urban area in Gauteng province, South Africa. Data were collected using questionnaires through an interview process. The information collected included aspects such as demographics, livelihood, the state of mental and physical health, adherence and disability. A total of 1044 participants with an average age of 42 ± 12 years were included in the study, with 51.9% of the participants reporting functional limitations (WHODAS ≥ 2). These were reported mainly in the domains of participation (40.2%) and mobility (38.7%). In addition, adherence to ART, symptoms of poor physical health and depression were strongly associated with their functional limitations/disability. HIV as a chronic disease is associated with functional limitations that are not adequately addressed and pose a risk of long-term disability and negative adherence outcomes. Therefore, wellness for PLHIV/AIDS needs to include interventions that can prevent and manage disability.

Investigating the interaction between human immunodeficiency virus, nutrition, and disability: A cross-sectional observational study

Background

The average lifespan of people with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has increased because of the enhanced access to anti-retroviral treatment. This increased longevity has led to a heightened focus on the comorbidities which may arise, allowing a clearer understanding of the contextual, personal, psychological and functional problems and their interrelations. Disability (functional limitations) and insufficient nutritional intake may interact cyclically with HIV and/or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS); however, no research to date has investigated this interaction.

Aims

The objective of this article was to report on the nutritional outcomes using albumin and body mass index outcomes as a subset of a larger study among adults living with HIV and/or AIDS.

Setting

This study was conducted at a large HIV clinic based in an urban area in Johannesburg, South Africa, which provides HIV treatment and support to over 6000 persons with HIV and TB. This clinic is part of a large public health regional hospital where extensive HIV research is undertaken.

Methods

This study was a cross-sectional observational study. The sample composed of 278 participants between 18 and 65 years of age and had been on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for more than six months. Statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.

Results

The results indicated that albumin level had significant inverse associations with functional limitations and physical health symptoms. Women were significantly more likely to have lower nutritional levels. A logistic regression analysis suggested that gender and physical health symptoms were the primary predictors of albumin levels.

Conclusion

The findings presented in this article can be applied to HIV and/or AIDS treatment programmes, such as HAART. It re-emphasises the importance of providing individuals on anti-retroviral therapy with affordable and adequate nutrition, education on the importance of nutritional intake and the benefits of potentially adopting supplement programmes. As females seem to be more adversely affected by low nutritional levels, with the findings showing an increased likelihood of developing physical health symptoms, focus also needs to be given to cultural or social factors that impact nutritional intake in women.

Factors affecting adherence to antiretroviral therapy among pregnant women in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

Background

Context-specific factors influence adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among pregnant women living with HIV. Gaps exist in the understanding of the reasons for the variable outcomes of the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programme at the health facility level in South Africa. This study examined adherence levels and reasons for non-adherence during pregnancy in a cohort of parturient women enrolled in the PMTCT programme in the Eastern Cape, South Africa.

Methods

This was a mixed-methods study involving 1709 parturient women in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. We conducted a multi-centre retrospective analysis of the mother-infant pair in the PMTCT electronic database in 2016. Semi-structured interviews of purposively selected parturient women with self-reported poor adherence (n = 177) were conducted to gain understanding of the main barriers to adherence. Binary logistic regression was used to determine the independent predictors of ART non-adherence.

Results

A high proportion (69.0%) of women reported perfect adherence. In the logistic regression analysis, after adjusting for confounding factors, marital status, cigarette smoking, alcohol use and non-disclosure to a family member were the independent predictors of non-adherence. Analysis of the qualitative data revealed that drug-related side-effects, being away from home, forgetfulness, non-disclosure, stigma and work-related demand were among the main reasons for non-adherence to ART.

Conclusions

Non-adherence to the antiretroviral therapy among pregnant women in this setting is associated with lifestyle behaviours, HIV-related stigma and ART side-effects. In order to eliminate mother-to-child transmission of HIV, clinicians need to screen for these factors at every antenatal clinic visit.

Optimizing prevention of HIV mother to child transmission: Duration of antiretroviral therapy and viral suppression at delivery among pregnant Malawian women

Background

Effective antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy minimizes the risk of vertical HIV transmission. Some women present late in their pregnancy for first antenatal visit; whether these women achieve viral suppression by delivery and how suppression varies with time on ART is unclear.

Methods

We conducted a prospective cohort study of HIV-infected pregnant women initiating antiretroviral therapy for the first time at Bwaila Hospital in Lilongwe, Malawi from June 2015 to November 2016. Multivariable Poisson models with robust variance estimators were used to estimate risk ratios (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of the association between duration of ART and both viral load (VL) ≥1000 copies/ml and VL ≥40 copies/ml at delivery.

Results

Of the 252 women who had viral load testing at delivery, 40 (16%) and 78 (31%) had VL ≥1000 copies/ml and VL ≥40 copies/ml, respectively. The proportion of women with poor adherence to ART was higher among women who were on ART for ≤12 weeks (9/50 = 18.0%) than among those who were on ART for 13–35 weeks (18/194 = 9.3%). Compared to women who were on ART for ≤12 weeks, women who were on ART for 13–20 weeks (RR = 0.52; 95% CI: 0.36–0.74) or 21–35 weeks (RR = 0.26; 95% CI: 0.14–0.48) had a lower risk of VL ≥40 copies/ml at delivery. Similar comparisons for VL ≥1000 copies/ml at delivery showed decrease in risk although not significant for those on ART 13–20 weeks.

Conclusion

Longer duration of ART during pregnancy was associated with suppressed viral load at delivery. Early ANC attendance in pregnancy to facilitate prompt ART initiation for HIV-positive women is essential in the effort to eliminate HIV vertical transmission.

Influence of Side Effects on ART Adherence Among PLWH in China: The Moderator Role of ART-Related Knowledge

Despite the medical advancements in HIV treatment, realities of side effects are faced by people living with HIV (PLWH) who receive antiretroviral therapy (ART). Mixed findings have been reported on the association between side effects and ART adherence. However, few studies have explored the combined side effects and behavior-related information on medication adherence. The aim of the current study is to examine moderator role of ART-related knowledge between side effects and ART adherence. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 2987 PLWH from October 2012 to August 2013 in China. Of the total sample, 2095 patients had received ART and provided ART adherence. Side effects, ART-related knowledge, and ART adherence, as well as potential covariates were assessed. The results revealed that there was a negative relationship of side effects and ART adherence existed among low and medium levels of ART-related knowledge, but not among high level of knowledge. Future interventions to promote HIV medication adherence should focus on providing behavior-related information education among PLWH.

The role of pain in quitting among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive smokers enrolled in a smoking cessation trial

BACKGROUND

Smoking rates among people living with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS; PLWHA) are at least twice as high as rates in the general population. Consistent with the reciprocal model of pain and smoking, PLWHA with pain who smoke may use smoking as a means of coping with pain, thus presenting a potential barrier to quitting. The aim of this study is to better understand how pain relates to smoking cessation among 474 HIV-positive adults enrolled in a cell phone-delivered smoking cessation trial.

METHODS

Participants were randomly assigned to usual care (cessation advice and self-help materials) or 11 sessions of cell phone-delivered smoking cessation treatment. Pain, as assessed by the Medical Outcomes Study-HIV Health Survey (MOS-HIV), and point prevalence abstinence were collected at the 3-month treatment end and at 6- and 12-month follow-ups. Self-reported abstinence was biochemically verified by expired carbon monoxide (CO) level of <7 ppm.

RESULTS

Using multilevel modeling for binary outcome data, the authors examined the relationship between pain and abstinence, from treatment end through the 12-month follow-up. Consistent with the authors' hypothesis, less pain was associated with greater likelihood of 24-hour (β = .01, t(651) = 2.53, P = .01) and 7-day (β = .01, t(651) = 2.35, P = .02) point prevalence abstinence, controlling for age, gender, baseline pain, nicotine dependence, and treatment group. No pain × treatment group interaction was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

These results can help us to better identify PLWHA at greater risk for relapse in smoking cessation treatment. Future research may examine the effectiveness of more comprehensive smoking cessation treatment that incorporates aspects of pain management for PLWHA who smoke and have high pain and symptom burden.

Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) in Yaoundé-Cameroon: Association with Opportunistic Infections, Depression, ART Regimen and Side Effects

Following global efforts to increase antiretroviral therapy (ART) access in Sub-Saharan Africa, ART coverage among HIV-infected Cameroonians increased from 0% in 2003 to 22% in 2014. However, the success of current HIV treatment programs depends not only on access to ART, but also on retention in care and good treatment adherence. This is necessary to achieve viral suppression, prevent virologic failure, and reduce viral transmission and HIV/AIDS-related deaths. Previous studies in Cameroon showed poor adherence, treatment interruption, and loss to follow-up among HIV+ subjects on ART, but the factors that influence ART adherence are not well known. In the current cross-sectional study, patient/self-reported questionnaires and pharmacy medication refill data were used to quantify ART adherence and determine the factors associated with increased risk of non-adherence among HIV-infected Cameroonians. We demonstrated that drug side-effects, low CD4 cell counts and higher viral loads are associated with increased risk of non-adherence, and compared to females, males were more likely to forego ART because of side effects (p<0.05). Univariate logistic regression analysis demonstrated that subjects with opportunistic infections (on antibiotics) had 2.42-times higher odds of having been non-adherent (p<0.001). Multivariable analysis controlling for ART regimen, age, gender, and education showed that subjects with opportunistic infections had 3.1-times higher odds of having been non-adherent (p<0.0003), with significantly longer periods of non-adherence, compared to subjects without opportunistic infections (p = 0.02). We further showed that compared to younger subjects (≤40 years), older subjects (>40 years) were less likely to be non-adherent (p<0.01) and had shorter non-adherent periods (p<0.0001). The presence of depression symptoms correlated with non-adherence to ART during antibiotic treatment (r = 0.53, p = 0.04), and was associated with lower CD4 cell counts (p = 0.04) and longer non-adherent periods (p = 0.04). Change in ART regimen was significantly associated with increased likelihood of non-adherence and increased duration of the non-adherence period. Addressing these underlying risk factors could improve ART adherence, retention in care and treatment outcomes for HIV/AIDS patients in Cameroon.

Discussing HIV Status: Is It Easier After 10 Years of Antiretroviral Treatment? The ANRS CO8 APROCO-COPILOTE Cohort

This study's objective was to explore the factors associated with the belief (or not) by people living with HIV that it is easier to talk about their seropositivity 10 years after initiating a protease inhibitor-containing ART. All patients in the ANRS CO8 APROCO-COPILOTE cohort who completed a self-administered questionnaire at 10 years of follow-up were included in this study. Forty-four percent of patients declared that discussing their seropositivity with their family was easier 10 years later, while 28 % declared this was true for discussing their status with a new sexual partner. Having a low socioeconomic status, not receiving social support from a steady partner and declaring a low number of discomforting symptoms 12 months after PI initiation were all independently associated with less difficulty in discussing seropositivity. This study highlights the difficulties in disclosing HIV 10 years after PI initiation, and the important influence of psychosocial factors and patients' daily-life experience on disclosure.

Self-Reported Side Effects and Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy in HIV-Infected Pregnant Women under Option B+: A Prospective Study

Background

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) regimens containing efavirenz (EFV) are recommended as part of universal ART for pregnant and breastfeeding women. EFV may have appreciable side effects (SE), and ART adherence in pregnancy is a major concern, but little is known about ART SE and associations with adherence in pregnancy.

Methods

We investigated the distribution of patient-reported SE (based on Division of AIDS categories) and the association of SE with missed ART doses in a cohort of 517 women starting EFV+3TC/FTC+TDF during pregnancy. In analysis, SE were considered in terms of their overall frequency, by systems category, and by latent classes.

Results

Overall 97% of women reported experiencing at least one SE after ART initiation, with 48% experiencing more than five SE. Gastrointestinal, central nervous system, systemic and skin SE were reported by 81%, 85%, 79% and 31% of women, respectively, with considerable overlap across groups. At least one missed dose was reported by 32% of women. In multivariable models, ART non-adherence was associated with systemic SE compared to other systems categories, and measures of the overall burden of SE experienced were most strongly associated with missed ART doses.

Conclusion

These data demonstrate very high levels of SE in pregnant women initiating EFV-based ART and a strong association between SE burden and ART adherence. ART regimens with reduced SE profiles may enhance adherence, and as countries expand universal ART for all adult patients, counseling must include preparation for ART SE.

Physiological and Psychological Correlates of Fatigue in HIV Disease

Fatigue is a frequent symptom reported by persons living with HIV disease and one that affects all aspects of quality of life. To improve quality of care of persons with HIV disease, it is important to address all factors that contribute to fatigue. The purpose of this study was to determine the associations of physiological, psychological, and sociological factors with fatigue in an HIV-infected population. With Piper’s integrated fatigue model guiding selection, factors examined in this study were hemoglobin, hematocrit, CD4+ cell count, HIV-RNA viral load, total sleep time, sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, HIV-related symptoms, anxiety, depression, and perceived stress. The sample (N = 79) for this descriptive correlational study was recruited from a primary health care association in South Carolina and consisted of 42 (53.2%) HIV-infected women and 37 (46.8%) HIV-infected men between the ages of 24 and 63 years (x = 39.9, s = 7.9). Of the participants, 70 (90%) were African American, 5 (6%) were Caucasian, and 3 (4%) were Hispanic. Using Pearson’s r, significant relationships were observed between fatigue and sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, HIV-related symptoms, state anxiety, trait anxiety, depression, and perceived stress. Sleep quality (F5,65 = 12.02, P = 0.0009), state anxiety (F5,65 = 8.28, P = 0.0054), HIV-related symptoms (F5,65 = 4.87, P = 0.0308), and depression (F5,65 = 7.31, P = 0.0087) retained significance in a 3-step, backward stepwise elimination model and accounted for 67% of the variance in fatigue. These findings underscore the need for addressing psychosocial stressors and sleep quality in developing effective care for HIV-infected individuals who experience fatigue.

Determinants of livelihood in the era of widespread access to ART

We have only just begun to understand the long-term impact of living with chronic HIV on health and livelihood after a decade of widespread access to treatment in southern Africa. This paper explores health and well-being, disability, and livelihood dynamics among people living with HIV (PLHIV) in a public healthcare setting in South Africa. We undertook a cross-sectional survey among a cohort of 1042 people on ART and explored associations between socio-demographic characteristics, treatment adherence, measures of disability (functional and activity limitations), livelihood resources (capitals) and outcomes, including food security, and exposure to livelihood shocks. A range of dynamic relationships relevant for decision-makers is evident. Age, gender, and marital status all had significant associations with levels of livelihood capitals and outcomes. Those who had been on ART for longer periods of time also had significantly higher aggregate livelihood capital. This was particularly driven by social and financial capital. Livelihoods are built within specific social and health contexts. Of particular importance is that the resources drawn on to build a livelihood differ significantly between men and women, and that different forms of disability also have gender-specific pathways in influencing livelihood and livelihood outcomes. Our results support the need for a gender-sensitive approach to supporting the well-being and livelihoods of PLHIV. Of equal importance is an approach that considers more comprehensively the new experiences of comorbidities and disabilities that may occur with a long life on ART.

A Structural Equation Model of HIV-related Symptoms, Depressive Symptoms, and Medication Adherence

Adherence to combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) remains critical in management of HIV infection. This study evaluated depression as a potential mechanism by which HIV-related symptoms affect medication adherence and explored if particular clusters of HIV symptoms are susceptible to this mechanism. Baseline data from a multi-visit intervention study were analyzed among 124 persons living with HIV (PLWH). A bifactor model showed two clusters of HIV-related symptom distress: general HIV-related symptoms and gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms. Structural equation modeling showed that both general HIV-related symptoms and GI symptoms were related to higher levels of depressive symptoms, and higher levels of depressive symptoms were related to lower levels of medication adherence. Although general HIV-related symptoms and GI symptoms were not directly related to adherence, they were indirectly associated with adherence via depression. The findings highlight the importance of early recognition and evaluation of symptoms of depression, as well as the underlying physical symptoms that might cause depression, to improve medication adherence.

Treatment Buddies Improve Clinic Attendance among Women but Not Men on Antiretroviral Therapy in the Nyanza Region of Kenya

Background. Kenyan antiretroviral (ART) guidelines encourage treatment buddies (TBy) to maximize treatment adherence. This study examined the effect of TBys on clinic attendance in men and women on ART. Methods. This retrospective cohort study included all adult patients initiating ART from August 2007 to December 2011 at four health facilities in Kenya. Data were abstracted from electronic medical records and analyzed using Poisson regression. Results. Of 2,430 patients, 2,199 (91%) had a TBy. Relationship between TBy and clinic attendance differed in females and males (interaction p = 0.09). After demographic and clinic factor adjustment, females with a TBy were 28% more likely to adhere to all appointments than those without (adjusted aRR = 1.28; 95% CI 1.08–1.53), whereas males were no more likely to adhere (aRR = 1.01; 95% CI 0.76–1.32). Males reported partner/spouse (33%) or brother (11%) as the TBy while females reported sister (17%), partner/spouse (14%), or another family member (12%). Multivariable analysis found no association between clinic attendance and TBy relationship in either gender. Conclusion. Clinic attendance was higher among women with TBys but not men. Results support TBys to help women achieve ART success; alternate strategies to bolster TBy benefits are needed for men.

Reasons for Missing Antiretroviral Therapy: Results from a Multi-Country Study in Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia

OBJECTIVES

To identify the reasons patients miss taking their antiretroviral therapy (ART) and the proportion who miss their ART because of symptoms; and to explore the association between symptoms and incomplete adherence.

METHODS

Secondary analysis of data collected during a cross-sectional study that examined ART adherence among adults from 18 purposefully selected sites in Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia. We interviewed 250 systematically selected patients per facility (≥ 18 years) on reasons for missing ART and symptoms they had experienced (using the HIV Symptom Index). We abstracted clinical data from the patients' medical, pharmacy, and laboratory records. Incomplete adherence was defined as having missed ART for at least 48 consecutive hours during the past 3 months.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine percent of participants reported at least one reason for having ever missed ART (1278/4425). The most frequent reason was simply forgetting (681/1278 or 53%), followed by ART-related hunger or not having enough food (30%), and symptoms (12%). The median number of symptoms reported by participants was 4 (IQR: 2-7). Every additional symptom increased the odds of incomplete adherence by 12% (OR: 1.1, 95% CI: 1.1-1.2). Female participants and participants initiated on a regimen containing stavudine were more likely to report greater numbers of symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Symptoms were a common reason for missing ART, together with simply forgetting and food insecurity. A combination of ART regimens with fewer side effects, use of mobile phone text message reminders, and integration of food supplementation and livelihood programmes into HIV programmes, have the potential to decrease missed ART and hence to improve adherence and the outcomes of ART programmes.

Psychosocial factors in adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-positive people who use drugs

OBJECTIVE

Suboptimal adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among HIV-infected people who use illicit drugs (PWUD) remains a significant concern, and there is a lack of effective adherence interventions for this population. Therefore, we sought to identify psychosocial determinants of optimal adherence, including adherence self-efficacy and outcome expectancies, with the aim of informing interventions designed to improve adherence among PWUD.

METHOD

From December 2005 to November 2013, we collected data from the AIDS Care Cohort to evaluate Exposure to Survival Services (ACCESS), a prospective cohort of PWUD in Vancouver, Canada. We used multivariable generalized estimating equations (GEE) analysis to identify longitudinal factors independently associated with 95% or greater adherence to ART.

RESULTS

Among 667 participants, including 220 (33%) women, 391 (59%) had 95% or greater ART adherence at baseline. In multivariable GEE analysis, adherence self-efficacy, adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 1.16, 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.11, 1.21] per 10-point increase, was independently and positively associated with adherence, while negative outcome expectancy, AOR = 0.95, 95% CI [0.93, 0.98], was negatively associated.

CONCLUSION

In light of the ongoing challenges associated with ART adherence among HIV-positive PWUD, and our findings of associations between adherence, self-efficacy, and outcomes expectancies, tailored intervention strategies based on constructs of social learning theory should be implemented and evaluated to improve adherence among HIV-infected PWUD.

Disability and Living with HIV: Baseline from a Cohort of People on Long Term ART in South Africa

BACKGROUND

Through access to life saving antiretroviral treatment (ART) in southern Africa, HIV has been reconceptualised as a chronic disease. This comes with new challenges of HIV-related co-morbidities and disabilities. We still lack an understanding of the types and scope of disabilities experienced by people on long term ART and how this impacts health, adherence, and livelihood. This paper describes the results of a cohort study examining the new health- and disability-related needs of the millions of people on ART in the region.

METHODS

Data was collected from a cohort of people who had been on ART for six months or longer in a semi-urban public health care setting in South Africa. 1042 adults (18 and older) participated in the cross-sectional study which investigated disabilities/activity limitations, health, ART adherence, depression symptoms, and livelihood. We analysed the associations between these constructs using descriptive statistics, and bivariate and multivariate analyses.

RESULTS

A large number of participants (35.5%) obtained a weighted score of two or more on the WHODAS 2.0 indicating possible activity limitations. A positive relationship was found between activity limitations and depression symptoms, adherence, and worse health outcomes, while none was found for BMI or CD4 count. These associations varied by type of activity limitations and, in some cases, by gender.

CONCLUSION

Activity limitations are potentially experienced by a large portion of people on ART in southern Africa which impacts health and ART adherence negatively. These results highlight the importance of better understanding the new health-related needs of people who are on long term ART, as well as the nuances of the disability they experience. This is urgently needed in order to enable HIV-endemic countries to better prepare for the new health-related needs of the millions of people on ART in southern Africa.

Is HIV Painful? An Epidemiologic Study of the Prevalence and Risk Factors for Pain in HIV-infected Patients

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the prevalence, impact, and risk factors for pain among a cohort of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults treated with combination antiretroviral therapy if indicated according to current guidelines.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional epidemiological observational study. All patients attending 1 HIV-outpatient center in the United Kingdom in a 10-month period were eligible. Patients completed a validated questionnaire enquiring about demographics, HIV factors, and symptoms of pain.

RESULTS

Of 1050 eligible participants, 859 (82%) completed a questionnaire. The 1-month period prevalence of pain lasting >1 day was 62.8% among whom 63% reported current pain. The prevalence of pain at most anatomic sites was broadly similar to that observed in population studies using the same questionnaires except that we found considerably higher rates of foot/ankle pain. The median duration of pain was 3 years (range, 0 to 51 y) and the median pain score was 5.0 on an 11-point visual analogue score. Over 40% of people in pain had consulted their primary care physician and >20% were taking analgesics daily. Independent risk factors for current pain were older age (P=0.001), time since diagnosis of HIV infection (P=0.001), and receipt of a protease inhibitor-based regimen (P=0.04).

DISCUSSION

Pain, and notably foot/ankle pain, is common among adults living with prevalent HIV and is associated with substantial morbidity and health care utilization.

Timing of antiretroviral therapy and regimen for HIV-infected patients with tuberculosis: the effect of revised HIV guidelines in Malawi

Background

In July 2011, the Malawi national HIV program implemented the integrated antiretroviral therapy (ART) and prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) guidelines. Among the principle goals of the guidelines were increasing ART uptake among TB/HIV co-infected patients and treating TB/HIV patients with a different drug regimen. We, therefore, assessed the effects of the new guidelines on ART uptake, the factors associated with ART uptake and the frequency of ARV-related adverse events in TB/HIV co-infected patients.

Methods

This was an observational cohort study using routine program data. All ART-naïve adult TB/HIV co-infected patients starting TB treatment over the six months preceding and following implementation of 2011 integrated ART/PMTCT guidelines were included.

Results

A total of 685 adult TB/HIV co-infected patients were registered in the study; 377 (55%) before and 308 (45%) after the implementation of the new guidelines. ART uptake increased from 70% (240/308) before implementation of the new guidelines to 78% (262/377) after the inception of the new guidelines (P=0.013). The proportion of TB patients initiating ART within two weeks of starting TB treatment increased from 30% before implementation of the new guidelines to 46% after implementation of the new guidelines (p <0.001). The median time from the start of TB treatment to ART initiation dropped from 16 days (IQR 14-31) before the new guidelines to 14 days (IQR 9-20; p = 0.004) after implementing the new guidelines. Factors associated with ART uptake were enrolment in HIV care before starting TB treatment and being a retreatment TB patient. The overall frequency of ARV-related adverse events was higher in patients on d4T/3TC/NVP (35%) than those on TDF/3TC/EFV (25%) but not significantly different (P=0.052).

Conclusion

Implementation of the 2011 Malawi Integrated ART/PMTCT guidelines was associated with an overall increase in ART uptake among TB/HIV patients and with an increase in the number of patients initiating ART within two weeks of starting their TB treatment. However, the reduction in time between initiating TB treatment and starting ART was small suggesting that further measures must be implemented to facilitate ART uptake. Early enrolment in HIV care provides opportunities for timely ART initiation among TB patients.

Antiretroviral treatment and quality of life in Africans living with HIV: 12-month follow-up in Burkina Faso

Introduction

The scale-up of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has led to a significant improvement in survival of the HIV-positive patient but its effects on health-related quality of life (HRQOL) are less known and context-dependent. Our aim was to assess the temporal changes and factors associated with HRQOL among HIV-positive adults initiating HAART in Burkina Faso.

Methods

HIV-positive people initiating HAART were prospectively included and followed over a one-year period in three HIV clinics of Ouagadougou. HRQOL was assessed at baseline and at each follow-up visit using physical (PHS) and mental (MHS) summary scores derived from the Medical Outcome Study 36-Item short-form health survey (MOS SF-36) questionnaire. Toxicity related to HAART modification and self-reported symptoms were recorded during follow-up visits. Determinants associated with baseline and changes in both scores over a one-year period were assessed using a mixed linear model.

Results

A total of 344 patients were included. Their median age at baseline was 37 years [interquartile range (IQR) 30–44] and their median CD4 count was 181 cells/mm³ (IQR 97–269). The mean [standard deviation (SD)] PHS score increased from 45.4 (11.1) at baseline to 60.0 (3.1) at 12 months (p<10⁻⁴) and the mean (SD) MHS score from 42.2 (8.7) to 43.9 (3.4) (p<10⁻²). After one year of treatment, patients that experienced on average two symptoms during follow-up presented with significantly lower PHS (63.9) and MHS (43.8) scores compared to patients that presented no symptoms with PHS and MHS of 68.2 (p<10⁻⁴) and 45.3 (p<10⁻³), respectively.

Discussion

The use of HAART was associated with a significant increase in both physical and mental aspects of the HRQOL over a 12-month period in this urban African population. Perceived symptoms experienced during follow-up visits were associated with a significant impairment in HRQOL. The appropriate and timely management of reported symptoms during the follow-up of HAART-treated patients is a key component to restore HRQOL.

Cobicistat: a Novel Pharmacoenhancer for Co-Formulation with HIV Protease and Integrase Inhibitors

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) therapy has evolved over the last 20 years from mono-drug therapy given five times daily to regimens consisting of three or four drugs combined in a single-tablet dosed once daily. To allow once-daily administration, several drugs require pharmacokinetic boosting by a concomitantly administered P-glycoprotein and cytochrome P450 inhibitor such as ritonavir. The availability of cobicistat provides an alternative to ritonavir to those who are intolerant to this drug, and the opportunity for co-formulated single-tablet regimens consisting of tenofovir/emtricitabine, cobicistat and elvitegravir, atazanavir or darunavir. The cobicistat/elvitegravir-based regimen is well tolerated and patients achieved high rates of HIV RNA suppression in clinical trials. Cobicistat inhibits renal tubular secretion of creatinine, resulting in increased serum creatinine concentrations and reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate, with a new set point reached after 4 weeks. Treatment limiting renal toxicity with cobicistat/elvitegravir and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate is infrequent and may be further reduced when cobicistat is co-formulated with tenofovir alafenamide fumarate, a novel formation of tenofovir currently undergoing clinical trials.

Gender differences in non-adherence among Brazilian patients initiating antiretroviral therapy

OBJECTIVE

We conducted a study to identify gender differences in factors associated with the first episode of non-adherence in the 12 months following the first antiretroviral prescription.

METHODS

A concurrent prospective study of patients initiating antiretroviral therapy in Brazil was conducted from 2001-2002. The self-reported measurement of adherence was defined as an intake of less than 95% of the prescribed number of doses. Only the first occurrence of non-adherence was considered in this analysis. All analyses were stratified by gender. A Cox proportional hazard model was used to estimate the risk of non-adherence, and the time to non-adherence was estimated using the Kaplan-Meier method.

RESULTS

The cumulative incidence of non-adherence was 34.6% (29.7% and 43.9% among men and women, respectively; p=0.010). Marital status (being married or in stable union; p=0.022), alcohol use in the month prior to the baseline interview (p=0.046), and current tobacco use (p=0.005) increased the risk of non-adherence among female participants only, whereas a self-reported difficulty with the antiretroviral treatment was associated with non-adherence in men only. For both men and women, we found that a longer time between the HIV test and first antiretroviral therapy prescription (p=0.028) also presented an increased risk of non-adherence.

CONCLUSIONS

In this cohort study, the incidence of non-adherence was 1.5 times greater among women compared to men. Our results reinforce the need to develop interventions that account for gender differences in public referral centers. Additionally, we emphasize that, to achieve and maintain appropriate adherence levels, it is important to understand the barriers to seeking and utilizing health care services.

Assessing adherence in Thai patients taking combination antiretroviral therapy

In settings where medications and viral load (VL) monitoring are limited by cost, clinicians need reliable ways to assess patient adherence to therapy. We assessed sensitivity and specificity of two self-reported adherence tools (a visual analogue scale [VAS] and the CASE [Center for Adherence Support Evaluation] adherence index), against a standard of detectable VL, with 288 patients from three sites in Thailand. We also assessed predictors of non-adherence. The sensitivity and specificity of the VAS <95% and CASE adherence index ≤11 against a VL >50 copies/mL were 26% and 90%, 19% and 95%, respectively. Against a VL ≥1000 copies/mL sensitivities increased to 55% and 36%, respectively, and specificities were unchanged. Attending a clinic not staffed by HIV specialists (odds ratio [OR] 3.14; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.19-8.34) and being educated to primary school level or less (OR 2.24; 95% CI 1.01-4.94) were associated with self-reported adherence <95% on the VAS in multivariate analysis. Adherence assessed by the VAS was a more accurate predictor of detectable VL. Policy-makers in resource-limited settings should ensure that treatment centres are staffed with well-trained personnel aware of the importance of good patient adherence.

The changing spectrum of rheumatic disease in HIV infection

BACKGROUND

Rheumatic manifestations were described soon after human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was discovered. Since however, combination anti-retroviral therapy (cART) has revolutionized the course of the infection. Less clear is what effect cART has had on rheumatic manifestations.

SOURCES OF DATA

References were retrieved from the PubMed database using keywords including: 'HIV' and 'arthritis'; 'myalgia'; 'arthralgia' and other disease-specific terms, e.g. 'rheumatoid arthritis'.

AREAS OF AGREEMENT

Musculoskeletal pain was common in HIV and increased with AIDS. Immune restoration inflammatory syndrome on initiation of cART causes de novo autoimmune inflammatory rheumatic disorders. Seronegative inflammatory arthritis with/without axial involvement has been reported widely with HIV.

AREAS OF CONTROVERSY

It is unclear if HIV causes these conditions, creates an environmental milieu supportive of these conditions or acts as a marker of other risk factors. It is unclear what effect cART has had on these conditions.

GROWING POINTS

Variable diagnostic classification criteria have caused this literature to be poorly comparable.

AREAS TIMELY FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH

High-quality controlled epidemiological studies using standardized criteria are needed among cART users. Treatment of active autoimmune disease in HIV patients needs to be evaluated formally.

The impact of specific HIV treatment-related adverse events on adherence to antiretroviral therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Poor adherence to antiretroviral therapies (ARTs) in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients increases the risk of incomplete viral suppression, development of viral resistance, progression to acquired immune deficiency syndrome and death. This study assesses the impact of specific treatment-related adverse events (AEs) on adherence to ART in the adult HIV patient population. A systematic review of studies involving adult HIV-infected patients aged ≥ 16 years that reported an odds ratio (OR) for factors affecting adherence to ART was conducted through a search of the EMBASE® and Medline® databases. Database searches were complemented with a search of titles in the bibliographies of review papers. Studies conducted in populations limited to a particular demographic characteristic or behavioural risk were excluded. To qualify for inclusion into a meta-analysis, treatment-related AEs had to be defined similarly across studies. Also, multiple ORs from the same study were included where study sub-groups were distinct. Random effects models were used to pool ORs. In total, 19 studies and 18 ART-related AEs were included in meta-analyses. Adherence to ART was significantly lower in patients with non-specific AEs than in patients who did not experience AEs [OR = 0.623; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.465–0.834]. Patients with specific AEs such as fatigue (OR = 0.631; 95% CI: 0.433–0.918), confusion (OR = 0.349; 95% CI: 0.184–0.661), taste disturbances (OR = 0.485; 95% CI: 0.303–0.775) and nausea (OR = 0.574; 95% CI: 0.427–0.772) were significantly less likely to adhere to ART compared to patients without these AEs. Knowledge of specific treatment-related AEs may allow for targeted management of these events and a careful consideration of well-tolerated treatment regimens to improve ART adherence and clinical outcomes.

Adherence to and effectiveness of highly active antiretroviral treatment for HIV infection: assessing the bidirectional relationship

BACKGROUND

It is well established that high adherence to HIV-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) is a major determinant of virological and immunologic success. Furthermore, psychosocial research has identified a wide range of adherence factors including patients' subjective beliefs about the effectiveness of HAART. Current statistical approaches, mainly based on the separate identification either of factors associated with treatment effectiveness or of those associated with adherence, fail to properly explore the true relationship between adherence and treatment effectiveness. Adherence behavior may be influenced not only by perceived benefits-which are usually the focus of related studies-but also by objective treatment benefits reflected in biological outcomes.

METHODS

Our objective was to assess the bidirectional relationship between adherence and response to treatment among patients enrolled in the ANRS CO8 APROCO-COPILOTE study. We compared a conventional statistical approach based on the separate estimations of an adherence and an effectiveness equation to an econometric approach using a 2-equation simultaneous system based on the same 2 equations.

RESULTS

Our results highlight a reciprocal relationship between adherence and treatment effectiveness. After controlling for endogeneity, adherence was positively associated with treatment effectiveness. Furthermore, CD4 count gain after baseline was found to have a positive significant effect on adherence at each observation period. This immunologic parameter was not significant when the adherence equation was estimated separately. In the 2-equation model, the covariances between disturbances of both equations were found to be significant, thus confirming the statistical appropriacy of studying adherence and treatment effectiveness jointly.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results, which suggest that positive biological results arising as a result of high adherence levels, in turn reinforce continued adherence and strengthen the argument that patients who do not experience rapid improvement in their immunologic and clinical statuses after HAART initiation should be prioritized when developing adherence support interventions. Furthermore, they invalidate the hypothesis that HAART leads to "false reassurance" among HIV-infected patients.

Patient-reported symptoms on the antiretroviral regimen efavirenz/emtricitabine/tenofovir

Most patients (80-90%) newly diagnosed with HIV are started on the antiretroviral regimen efavirenz, emtricitabine, and tenofovir (EFV/FTC/TDF). Existing studies of patient tolerability, however, are limited. We compared symptom experiences of patients on EFV/FTC/TDF, and the subsequent impact on health-related quality of life, with those of patients on other combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of the Veterans Aging Cohort Study from February 2008 to August 2009 to compare the symptom experiences of patients on EFV/FTC/TDF vs. other cART, unadjusted and then adjusted for treatment characteristics, and comorbid disease severity. We then assessed the association between EFV/FTC/TDF use and health-related quality of life. Among the 1,759 patients in our analytic sample, EFV/FTC/TDF use was associated with fewer symptoms than was other cART. The use of EFV/FTC/TDF was independently associated with health-related quality of life, and this association was at least partially explained by symptom burden.

[Patients' beliefs about long-term glucocorticoid therapy and their association to treatment adherence]

BACKGROUND

In patients treated with systemic glucocorticoids (GCs), it is unknown if beliefs about the treatment are associated with level of reported adherence.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Cross-sectional study conducted in two departments of internal medicine during a six-month period. All patients receiving long-term GCs therapy were asked to fill in a questionnaire regarding their beliefs about (specific scale of the Beliefs about Medicines Questionnaire) and their adherence to (four-item Morisky-Green scale) GCs. Logistic regression analysis was used to assess association between beliefs about GCs and adherence to treatment.

RESULTS

One hundred and eighty one questionnaires were analysed (women: 79%, median age [IQR]: 47 [33-61] years, median duration of treatment: 18 [7-72] months, median daily dosage of prednisone equivalent: 10 [6-20] mg). Among these 181 patients, 83 (46%) reported a "concern" score equal to or higher than the "necessity" score. Nineteen percent of patients reported a low adherence level. In multivariate analysis, these patients were significantly younger (OR: 0.96 [0.93-0.98] per increasing year of age, P=0.002) and reported more frequently a "concern" score higher than a "necessity" score (OR: 3.08 [1.27-7.46], P=0.01) as compared to patients reporting a high adherence level.

CONCLUSION

Informing patients about the "necessity" of GCs and taking into account their "concerns" about adverse events or their fear of becoming dependent on the medication may improve their adherence to treatment.

A closer look at depression and its relationship to HIV antiretroviral adherence

BACKGROUND

Depression consistently predicts nonadherence to human immunodeficiency virus antiretroviral therapy, but which aspects of depression are most influential are unknown. Such knowledge could inform assessments of adherence readiness and the type of depression treatment to utilize.

PURPOSE

We examined how depression severity, symptom type, and change over time relate to adherence.

METHODS

Microelectronic adherence and self-reported depression data from 1,374 participants across merged studies were examined with cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Depression variables included a continuous measure, categorical measure of severity, cognitive and vegetative subscales, and individual symptoms.

RESULTS

At baseline, mean adherence was 69%, and 25% had mild/moderate and 18% had severe depression. In cross-sectional multivariate analyses, continuous depression, cognitive depressive symptoms, and severe depression were associated with lower adherence. In longitudinal analysis, reductions in both continuous and categorical depression predicted increased adherence.

CONCLUSIONS

The relationship between global continuous depression and nonadherence was statistically significant, but relatively weak compared to that of cognitive depressive symptoms and severe depression, which appear to pose strong challenges to adherence and call for the need for early detection and treatment of depression.

Women and vulnerability to HAART non-adherence: a literature review of treatment adherence by gender from 2000 to 2011

A literature review of original research articles on adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) in developed countries, covering January 2000 to June 2011, was conducted to determine if gender differences exist in the prevalence of nonadherence to ART. Of the 1,255 articles reviewed, only 189 included data on the proportion of the study population that was adherent and only 57 (30.2%) of these reported proportional adherence values by gender. While comparing articles was challenging because of varied reporting strategies, women generally exhibit poorer adherence than men. Thirty of the 44 articles (68.2%) that reported comparative data on adherence by gender found women to be less adherent than men. Ten articles (17.5%) reported significant differences in proportional adherence by gender, nine of which showed women to be less adherent than men. These findings suggest that in multiple studies from developed countries, female gender often predicts lower adherence. The unique circumstances of HIV-positive women require specialized care to increase adherence to ART.