1
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Shirazi A, Sahraeibelverdi T, Lee M, Li H, Yu J, Jaiswal S, Oldham KR, Wang TD. Miniature side-view dual axes confocal endomicroscope for repetitive in vivo imaging. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 14:4277-4295. [PMID: 37799693 PMCID: PMC10549747 DOI: 10.1364/boe.494210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
A side-view dual axes confocal endomicroscope is demonstrated that can be inserted repetitively in hollow organs of genetically engineered mice for in vivo real-time imaging in horizontal and vertical planes. Near infrared (NIR) excitation at λex = 785 nm was used. A monolithic 3-axis parametric resonance scan mirror was fabricated using micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) technology to perform post-objective scanning in the distal end of a 4.19 mm diameter instrument. Torsional and serpentine springs were designed to "switch" the mode of imaging between vertical and horizontal planes by tuning the actuation frequency. This system demonstrated real-time in-vivo images in horizontal and vertical planes with 310 µm depth and 1.75 and 7.5 µm lateral and axial resolution. Individual cells and discrete mucosal structures could be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Shirazi
- Division of Integrative Systems and Design,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
48109, USA
| | | | - Miki Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division
of Gastroenterology, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Haijun Li
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division
of Gastroenterology, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Joonyoung Yu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
48109, USA
| | - Sangeeta Jaiswal
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division
of Gastroenterology, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Kenn R Oldham
- Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
48109, USA
| | - Thomas D Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
48109, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division
of Gastroenterology, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
48109, USA
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2
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You X, Liu J, Li Y, Jiang Y, Liu J. 3D microscopy in industrial measurements. J Microsc 2023; 289:137-156. [PMID: 36427335 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Quality control is essential to ensure the performance and yield of microdevices in industrial processing and manufacturing. In particular, 3D microscopy can be considered as a separate branch of microscopic instruments and plays a pivotal role in monitoring processing quality. For industrial measurements, 3D microscopy is mainly used for both the inspection of critical dimensions to ensure the design performance and detection of defects for improving the yield of microdevices. However, with the progress of advanced manufacturing technology and the increasing demand for high-performance microdevices, 3D microscopy has ushered in new challenges and development opportunities, such as breakthroughs in diffraction limit, 3D characterisation and calibrations of critical dimensions, high-precision detection and physical property determination of defects, and application of artificial intelligence. In this review, we provide a comprehensive survey about the state of the art and challenges in 3D microscopy for industrial measurements, and provide development ideas for future research. By describing techniques and methods with their advantages and limitations, we provide guidance to researchers and developers about the most suitable technique available for their intended industrial measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu You
- Advanced Microscopy and Instrumentation Research Centre, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Robotics and Systems, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,Key Lab of Ultra-Precision Intelligent Instrumentation Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,Key Laboratory of Microsystems and Microstructures Manufacturing Ministry of Education, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Advanced Microscopy and Instrumentation Research Centre, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Robotics and Systems, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,Key Lab of Ultra-Precision Intelligent Instrumentation Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,Key Laboratory of Microsystems and Microstructures Manufacturing Ministry of Education, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Yifei Li
- Advanced Microscopy and Instrumentation Research Centre, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Robotics and Systems, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,Key Lab of Ultra-Precision Intelligent Instrumentation Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,Key Laboratory of Microsystems and Microstructures Manufacturing Ministry of Education, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Yong Jiang
- Advanced Microscopy and Instrumentation Research Centre, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Robotics and Systems, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,Key Lab of Ultra-Precision Intelligent Instrumentation Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,Key Laboratory of Microsystems and Microstructures Manufacturing Ministry of Education, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Jian Liu
- Advanced Microscopy and Instrumentation Research Centre, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Robotics and Systems, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,Key Lab of Ultra-Precision Intelligent Instrumentation Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China.,Key Laboratory of Microsystems and Microstructures Manufacturing Ministry of Education, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
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3
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Perperidis A, Dhaliwal K, McLaughlin S, Vercauteren T. Image computing for fibre-bundle endomicroscopy: A review. Med Image Anal 2020; 62:101620. [PMID: 32279053 PMCID: PMC7611433 DOI: 10.1016/j.media.2019.101620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Endomicroscopy is an emerging imaging modality, that facilitates the acquisition of in vivo, in situ optical biopsies, assisting diagnostic and potentially therapeutic interventions. While there is a diverse and constantly expanding range of commercial and experimental optical biopsy platforms available, fibre-bundle endomicroscopy is currently the most widely used platform and is approved for clinical use in a range of clinical indications. Miniaturised, flexible fibre-bundles, guided through the working channel of endoscopes, needles and catheters, enable high-resolution imaging across a variety of organ systems. Yet, the nature of image acquisition though a fibre-bundle gives rise to several inherent characteristics and limitations necessitating novel and effective image pre- and post-processing algorithms, ranging from image formation, enhancement and mosaicing to pathology detection and quantification. This paper introduces the underlying technology and most prevalent clinical applications of fibre-bundle endomicroscopy, and provides a comprehensive, up-to-date, review of relevant image reconstruction, analysis and understanding/inference methodologies. Furthermore, current limitations as well as future challenges and opportunities in fibre-bundle endomicroscopy computing are identified and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonios Perperidis
- Institute of Sensors, Signals and Systems (ISSS), Heriot Watt University, EH14 4AS, UK; EPSRC IRC "Hub" in Optical Molecular Sensing & Imaging, MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute (QMRI), University of Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK.
| | - Kevin Dhaliwal
- EPSRC IRC "Hub" in Optical Molecular Sensing & Imaging, MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute (QMRI), University of Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK.
| | - Stephen McLaughlin
- Institute of Sensors, Signals and Systems (ISSS), Heriot Watt University, EH14 4AS, UK.
| | - Tom Vercauteren
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, WC2R 2LS, UK.
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4
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Loewke NO, Qiu Z, Mandella MJ, Ertsey R, Loewke A, Gunaydin LA, Rosenthal EL, Contag CH, Solgaard O. Software-Based Phase Control, Video-Rate Imaging, and Real-Time Mosaicing With a Lissajous-Scanned Confocal Microscope. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MEDICAL IMAGING 2020; 39:1127-1137. [PMID: 31567074 PMCID: PMC8837204 DOI: 10.1109/tmi.2019.2942552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
We present software-based methods for automatic phase control and for mosaicing high-speed, Lissajous-scanned images. To achieve imaging speeds fast enough for mosaicing, we first increase the image update rate tenfold from 3 to 30 Hz, then vertically interpolate each sparse image in real-time to eliminate fixed pattern noise. We validate our methods by imaging fluorescent beads and automatically maintaining phase control over the course of one hour. We then image fixed mouse brain tissues at varying update rates and compare the resulting mosaics. Using reconstructed image data as feedback for phase control eliminates the need for phase sensors and feedback controllers, enabling long-term imaging experiments without additional hardware. Mosaicing subsampled images results in video-rate imaging speeds, nearly fully recovered spatial resolution, and millimeter-scale fields of view.
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5
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Zhou G, Lim ZH, Qi Y, Zhou G. Single-Pixel MEMS Imaging Systems. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:E219. [PMID: 32093324 PMCID: PMC7074650 DOI: 10.3390/mi11020219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Single-pixel imaging technology is an attractive technology considering the increasing demand of imagers that can operate in wavelengths where traditional cameras have limited efficiency. Meanwhile, the miniaturization of imaging systems is also desired to build affordable and portable devices for field applications. Therefore, single-pixel imaging systems based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) is an effective solution to develop truly miniaturized imagers, owing to their ability to integrate multiple functionalities within a small device. MEMS-based single-pixel imaging systems have mainly been explored in two research directions, namely the encoding-based approach and the scanning-based approach. The scanning method utilizes a variety of MEMS scanners to scan the target scenery and has potential applications in the biological imaging field. The encoding-based system typically employs MEMS modulators and a single-pixel detector to encode the light intensities of the scenery, and the images are constructed by harvesting the power of computational technology. This has the capability to capture non-visible images and 3D images. Thus, this review discusses the two approaches in detail, and their applications are also reviewed to evaluate the efficiency and advantages in various fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangcan Zhou
- Micro and Nano Systems Initiative, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore; (G.Z.); (Z.H.L.); (Y.Q.)
| | - Zi Heng Lim
- Micro and Nano Systems Initiative, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore; (G.Z.); (Z.H.L.); (Y.Q.)
| | - Yi Qi
- Micro and Nano Systems Initiative, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore; (G.Z.); (Z.H.L.); (Y.Q.)
| | - Guangya Zhou
- Micro and Nano Systems Initiative, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore; (G.Z.); (Z.H.L.); (Y.Q.)
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6
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Li H, Hou X, Lin R, Fan M, Pang S, Jiang L, Liu Q, Fu L. Advanced endoscopic methods in gastrointestinal diseases: a systematic review. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019; 9:905-920. [PMID: 31281783 DOI: 10.21037/qims.2019.05.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Endoscopic imaging is the main method for detecting gastrointestinal diseases, which adversely affect human health. White light endoscopy (WLE) was the first method used for endoscopic examination and is still the preliminary step in the detection of gastrointestinal diseases during clinical examination. However, it cannot accurately diagnose gastrointestinal diseases owing to its poor correlation with histopathological diagnosis. In recent years, many advanced endoscopic methods have emerged to improve the detection accuracy by endoscopy. Chromoendoscopy (CE) enhances the contrast between normal and diseased tissues using biocompatible dye agents. Narrow band imaging (NBI) can improve the contrast between capillaries and submucosal vessels by changing the light source acting on the tissue using special filters to realize the visualization of the vascular structure. Flexible spectral imaging color enhancement (FICE) technique uses the reflectance spectrum estimation technique to obtain individual spectral images and reconstructs an enhanced image of the mucosal surface using three selected spectral images. The i-Scan technology takes advantage of the different reflective properties of normal and diseased tissues to obtain images, and enhances image contrast through post-processing algorithms. These abovementioned methods can be used to detect gastrointestinal diseases by observing the macroscopic structure of the digestive tract mucosa, but the ability of early cancer detection is limited with low resolution. However, based on the principle of confocal imaging, probe-based confocal laser endomicroscopy (pCLE) can enable cellular visualization with high-performance probes, which can present cellular morphology that is highly consistent with that shown by biopsy to provide the possibility of early detection of cancer. Other endoscopic imaging techniques including endoscopic optical coherence tomography (EOCT) and photoacoustic endoscopy (PAE), are also promising for diagnosing gastrointestinal diseases. This review focuses on these technologies and aims to provide an overview of different technologies and their clinical applicability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Li
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics-Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China.,MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, School of Engineering Sciences, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Xiaohua Hou
- Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Rong Lin
- Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Mengke Fan
- Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Suya Pang
- Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Longjie Jiang
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics-Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China.,MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, School of Engineering Sciences, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Qian Liu
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics-Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China.,MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, School of Engineering Sciences, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Ling Fu
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics-Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China.,MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, School of Engineering Sciences, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
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7
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MEMS Actuators for Optical Microendoscopy. MICROMACHINES 2019; 10:mi10020085. [PMID: 30682852 PMCID: PMC6412441 DOI: 10.3390/mi10020085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 12/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Growing demands for affordable, portable, and reliable optical microendoscopic imaging devices are attracting research institutes and industries to find new manufacturing methods. However, the integration of microscopic components into these subsystems is one of today's challenges in manufacturing and packaging. Together with this kind of miniaturization more and more functional parts have to be accommodated in ever smaller spaces. Therefore, solving this challenge with the use of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) fabrication technology has opened the promising opportunities in enabling a wide variety of novel optical microendoscopy to be miniaturized. MEMS fabrication technology enables abilities to apply batch fabrication methods with high-precision and to include a wide variety of optical functionalities to the optical components. As a result, MEMS technology has enabled greater accessibility to advance optical microendoscopy technology to provide high-resolution and high-performance imaging matching with traditional table-top microscopy. In this review the latest advancements of MEMS actuators for optical microendoscopy will be discussed in detail.
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8
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Liu T, Rajadhyaksha M, Dickensheets DL. MEMS-in-the-lens architecture for a miniature high-NA laser scanning microscope. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2019; 8:59. [PMID: 31263558 PMCID: PMC6592906 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-019-0167-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Laser scanning microscopes can be miniaturized for in vivo imaging by substituting optical microelectromechanical system (MEMS) devices in place of larger components. The emergence of multifunctional active optical devices can support further miniaturization beyond direct component replacement because those active devices enable diffraction-limited performance using simpler optical system designs. In this paper, we propose a catadioptric microscope objective lens that features an integrated MEMS device for performing biaxial scanning, axial focus adjustment, and control of spherical aberration. The MEMS-in-the-lens architecture incorporates a reflective MEMS scanner between a low-numerical-aperture back lens group and an aplanatic hyperhemisphere front refractive element to support high-numerical-aperture imaging. We implemented this new optical system using a recently developed hybrid polymer/silicon MEMS three-dimensional scan mirror that features an annular aperture that allows it to be coaxially aligned within the objective lens without the need for a beam splitter. The optical performance of the active catadioptric system is simulated and imaging of hard targets and human cheek cells is demonstrated with a confocal microscope that is based on the new objective lens design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianbo Liu
- Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59715 USA
| | - Milind Rajadhyaksha
- Dermatology Department, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10022 USA
| | - David L. Dickensheets
- Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59715 USA
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9
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Wei L, Yin C, Liu JTC. Dual-axis confocal microscopy for point-of-care pathology. IEEE JOURNAL OF SELECTED TOPICS IN QUANTUM ELECTRONICS : A PUBLICATION OF THE IEEE LASERS AND ELECTRO-OPTICS SOCIETY 2019; 25:7100910. [PMID: 30872909 PMCID: PMC6411089 DOI: 10.1109/jstqe.2018.2854572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Dual-axis confocal (DAC) microscopy is an optical imaging modality that utilizes simple low-numerical aperture (NA) lenses to achieve effective optical sectioning and superior image contrast in biological tissues. The unique architecture of DAC microscopy also provides some advantages for miniaturization, facilitating the development of endoscopic and handheld DAC systems for in vivo imaging. This article reviews the principles of DAC microscopy, including its differences from conventional confocal microscopy, and surveys several variations of DAC microscopy that have been developed and investigated as non-invasive real-time alternatives to conventional biopsy and histopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linpeng Wei
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA, JTCL is also with the Department of Pathology at the University of Washington
| | - Chengbo Yin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA, JTCL is also with the Department of Pathology at the University of Washington
| | - Jonathan T C Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA, JTCL is also with the Department of Pathology at the University of Washington
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10
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Edrei E, Scarcelli G. Adaptive optics in spectroscopy and densely labeled-fluorescence applications. OPTICS EXPRESS 2018; 26:33865-33877. [PMID: 30650818 PMCID: PMC6410909 DOI: 10.1364/oe.26.033865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Adaptive optics systems have been integrated in many imaging modalities in order to correct for aberrations that are introduced by samples and optical elements. Usually, the optical system has access to a guide star (i.e., a point-like structure that is smaller than the diffraction limit). This guide star can be used as a beacon for adaptive optics enhancement. In contrast, for spectroscopy and densely-labeled fluorescent samples, the signal is diffused throughout the entire beam path and is not confined to a well-defined point-like structure. Here, we show analytically and experimentally that, in these scenarios, adaptive optics systems are expected to yield significantly lower signal enhancement than when a guide star is available. We discuss adaptive optics' performance degradation for different imaging modalities (e.g., confocal, multi-photon microscopy) and identify solutions to overcome low signal enhancements.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Giuliano Scarcelli
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
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11
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Vaidya N, Solgaard O. 3D printed optics with nanometer scale surface roughness. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2018; 4:18. [PMID: 31057906 PMCID: PMC6220180 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-018-0015-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Complex optical devices including aspherical focusing mirrors, solar concentrator arrays, and immersion lenses were 3D printed using commercial technology and experimentally demonstrated by evaluating surface roughness and shape. The as-printed surfaces had surface roughness on the order of tens of microns. To improve this unacceptable surface quality for creating optics, a polymer smoothing technique was developed. Atomic force microscopy and optical profilometry showed that the smoothing technique reduced the surface roughness to a few nanometers, consistent with the requirements of high-quality optics, while tests of optical functionality demonstrated that the overall shapes were maintained so that near theoretically predicted operation was achieved. The optical surface smoothing technique is a promising approach towards using 3D printing as a flexible tool for prototyping and fabrication of miniaturized high-quality optics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Vaidya
- Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, 348 Via Pueblo Mall, Stanford, CA 94305-4090 USA
| | - Olav Solgaard
- Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, 348 Via Pueblo Mall, Stanford, CA 94305-4090 USA
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12
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Edrei E, Scarcelli G. Brillouin micro-spectroscopy through aberrations via sensorless adaptive optics. APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 2018; 112:163701. [PMID: 29713091 PMCID: PMC5902333 DOI: 10.1063/1.5027838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Brillouin spectroscopy is a powerful optical technique for non-contact viscoelastic characterizations which has recently found applications in three-dimensional mapping of biological samples. Brillouin spectroscopy performances are rapidly degraded by optical aberrations and have therefore been limited to homogenous transparent samples. In this work, we developed an adaptive optics (AO) configuration designed for Brillouin scattering spectroscopy to engineer the incident wavefront and correct for aberrations. Our configuration does not require direct wavefront sensing and the injection of a "guide-star"; hence, it can be implemented without the need for sample pre-treatment. We used our AO-Brillouin spectrometer in aberrated phantoms and biological samples and obtained improved precision and resolution of Brillouin spectral analysis; we demonstrated 2.5-fold enhancement in Brillouin signal strength and 1.4-fold improvement in axial resolution because of the correction of optical aberrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eitan Edrei
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - Giuliano Scarcelli
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
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13
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Qiu Z, Piyawattanamatha W. New Endoscopic Imaging Technology Based on MEMS Sensors and Actuators. MICROMACHINES 2017; 8:mi8070210. [PMID: 30400401 PMCID: PMC6190023 DOI: 10.3390/mi8070210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2016] [Revised: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Over the last decade, optical fiber-based forms of microscopy and endoscopy have extended the realm of applicability for many imaging modalities. Optical fiber-based imaging modalities permit the use of remote illumination sources and enable flexible forms supporting the creation of portable and hand-held imaging instrumentations to interrogate within hollow tissue cavities. A common challenge in the development of such devices is the design and integration of miniaturized optical and mechanical components. Until recently, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) sensors and actuators have been playing a key role in shaping the miniaturization of these components. This is due to the precision mechanics of MEMS, microfabrication techniques, and optical functionality enabling a wide variety of movable and tunable mirrors, lenses, filters, and other optical structures. Many promising results from MEMS based optical fiber endoscopy have demonstrated great potentials for clinical translation. In this article, reviews of MEMS sensors and actuators for various fiber-optical endoscopy such as fluorescence, optical coherence tomography, confocal, photo-acoustic, and two-photon imaging modalities will be discussed. This advanced MEMS based optical fiber endoscopy can provide cellular and molecular features with deep tissue penetration enabling guided resections and early cancer assessment to better treatment outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Qiu
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | - Wibool Piyawattanamatha
- Departments of Biomedical and Electronics Engineering, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand.
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14
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15
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Seo YH, Hwang K, Park HC, Jeong KH. Electrothermal MEMS fiber scanner for optical endomicroscopy. OPTICS EXPRESS 2016; 24:3903-9. [PMID: 26907043 DOI: 10.1364/oe.24.003903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We report a novel MEMS fiber scanner with an electrothermal silicon microactuator and a directly mounted optical fiber. The microactuator comprises double hot arm and cold arm structures with a linking bridge and an optical fiber is aligned along a silicon fiber groove. The unique feature induces separation of resonant scanning frequencies of a single optical fiber in lateral and vertical directions, which realizes Lissajous scanning during the resonant motion. The footprint dimension of microactuator is 1.28 x 7 x 0.44 mm3. The resonant scanning frequencies of a 20 mm long optical fiber are 239.4 Hz and 218.4 Hz in lateral and vertical directions, respectively. The full scanned area indicates 451 μm x 558 μm under a 16 Vpp pulse train. This novel laser scanner can provide many opportunities for laser scanning endomicroscopic applications.
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16
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Yin C, Glaser A, Leigh SY, Chen Y, Wei L, Pillai PCS, Rosenberg MC, Abeytunge S, Peterson G, Glazowski C, Sanai N, Mandella MJ, Rajadhyaksha M, Liu JTC. Miniature in vivo MEMS-based line-scanned dual-axis confocal microscope for point-of-care pathology. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2016; 7:251-63. [PMID: 26977337 PMCID: PMC4771446 DOI: 10.1364/boe.7.000251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Revised: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 12/06/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
There is a need for miniature optical-sectioning microscopes to enable in vivo interrogation of tissues as a real-time and noninvasive alternative to gold-standard histopathology. Such devices could have a transformative impact for the early detection of cancer as well as for guiding tumor-resection procedures. Miniature confocal microscopes have been developed by various researchers and corporations to enable optical sectioning of highly scattering tissues, all of which have necessitated various trade-offs in size, speed, depth selectivity, field of view, resolution, image contrast, and sensitivity. In this study, a miniature line-scanned (LS) dual-axis confocal (DAC) microscope, with a 12-mm diameter distal tip, has been developed for clinical point-of-care pathology. The dual-axis architecture has demonstrated an advantage over the conventional single-axis confocal configuration for reducing background noise from out-of-focus and multiply scattered light. The use of line scanning enables fast frame rates (16 frames/sec is demonstrated here, but faster rates are possible), which mitigates motion artifacts of a hand-held device during clinical use. We have developed a method to actively align the illumination and collection beams in a DAC microscope through the use of a pair of rotatable alignment mirrors. Incorporation of a custom objective lens, with a small form factor for in vivo clinical use, enables our device to achieve an optical-sectioning thickness and lateral resolution of 2.0 and 1.1 microns respectively. Validation measurements with reflective targets, as well as in vivo and ex vivo images of tissues, demonstrate the clinical potential of this high-speed optical-sectioning microscopy device.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Yin
- University of Washington, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - A.K. Glaser
- University of Washington, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - S. Y. Leigh
- University of Washington, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Y. Chen
- University of Washington, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - L. Wei
- University of Washington, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - P. C. S. Pillai
- University of Washington, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - M. C. Rosenberg
- University of Washington, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - S. Abeytunge
- Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, Dermatology Services, Department of Medicine, New York, NY 10010, USA
| | - G. Peterson
- Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, Dermatology Services, Department of Medicine, New York, NY 10010, USA
| | - C. Glazowski
- Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, Dermatology Services, Department of Medicine, New York, NY 10010, USA
| | - N. Sanai
- Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph’s Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ 85013 USA
| | - M. J. Mandella
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - M. Rajadhyaksha
- Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, Dermatology Services, Department of Medicine, New York, NY 10010, USA
| | - J. T. C. Liu
- University of Washington, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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18
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Loterie D, Farahi S, Papadopoulos I, Goy A, Psaltis D, Moser C. Digital confocal microscopy through a multimode fiber. OPTICS EXPRESS 2015; 23:23845-58. [PMID: 26368478 DOI: 10.1364/oe.23.023845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Acquiring high-contrast optical images deep inside biological tissues is still a challenging problem. Confocal microscopy is an important tool for biomedical imaging since it improves image quality by rejecting background signals. However, it suffers from low sensitivity in deep tissues due to light scattering. Recently, multimode fibers have provided a new paradigm for minimally invasive endoscopic imaging by controlling light propagation through them. Here we introduce a combined imaging technique where confocal images are acquired through a multimode fiber. We achieve this by digitally engineering the excitation wavefront and then applying a virtual digital pinhole on the collected signal. In this way, we are able to acquire images through the fiber with significantly increased contrast. With a fiber of numerical aperture 0.22, we achieve a lateral resolution of 1.5µm, and an axial resolution of 12.7µm. The point-scanning rate is currently limited by our spatial light modulator (20Hz).
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19
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Abstract
Mounting evidence suggests that a more extensive surgical resection is associated with an improved life expectancy for both low-grade and high-grade glioma patients. However, radiographically complete resections are not often achieved in many cases because of the lack of sensitivity and specificity of current neurosurgical guidance techniques at the margins of diffuse infiltrative gliomas. Intraoperative fluorescence imaging offers the potential to improve the extent of resection and to investigate the possible benefits of resecting beyond the radiographic margins. Here, we provide a review of wide-field and high-resolution fluorescence-imaging strategies that are being developed for neurosurgical guidance, with a focus on emerging imaging technologies and clinically viable contrast agents. The strengths and weaknesses of these approaches will be discussed, as well as issues that are being addressed to translate these technologies into the standard of care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan T C Liu
- *Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York; ‡Barrow Brain Tumor Research Center, Division of Neurosurgical Oncology, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona
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20
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Lobatto ME, Calcagno C, Millon A, Senders ML, Fay F, Robson PM, Ramachandran S, Binderup T, Paridaans MP, Sensarn S, Rogalla S, Gordon RE, Cardoso L, Storm G, Metselaar JM, Contag CH, Stroes ESG, Fayad ZA, Mulder WJ. Atherosclerotic plaque targeting mechanism of long-circulating nanoparticles established by multimodal imaging. ACS NANO 2015; 9:1837-47. [PMID: 25619964 PMCID: PMC4492477 DOI: 10.1021/nn506750r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is a major cause of global morbidity and mortality that could benefit from novel targeted therapeutics. Recent studies have shown efficient and local drug delivery with nanoparticles, although the nanoparticle targeting mechanism for atherosclerosis has not yet been fully elucidated. Here we used in vivo and ex vivo multimodal imaging to examine permeability of the vessel wall and atherosclerotic plaque accumulation of fluorescently labeled liposomal nanoparticles in a rabbit model. We found a strong correlation between permeability as established by in vivo dynamic contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging and nanoparticle plaque accumulation with subsequent nanoparticle distribution throughout the vessel wall. These key observations will enable the development of nanotherapeutic strategies for atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark E. Lobatto
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, United States
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9,1105 AZ, The Netherlands
| | - Claudia Calcagno
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | - Antoine Millon
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, United States
- Department of Vascular Surgery, University Hospital of Lyon, 69000 Lyon, France
| | - Max L. Senders
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | - Francois Fay
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | - Philip M. Robson
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | - Sarayu Ramachandran
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | - Tina Binderup
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, United States
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine & PET and Cluster for Molecular Imaging, Rigshospitalet & University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Maarten P.M. Paridaans
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | - Steven Sensarn
- Departments of Radiology, Pediatrics and the Molecular Imaging Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Stephan Rogalla
- Departments of Radiology, Pediatrics and the Molecular Imaging Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Ronald E. Gordon
- Department of Pathology, Mount Sinai Hospital, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | - Luis Cardoso
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The City College of New York, New York, New York 10031, United States
| | - Gert Storm
- Department of Targeted Therapeutic, MIRA Institute, University of Twente, Enschede, 7500 AE, The Netherlands
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht 3512 JE, The Netherlands
| | - Josbert M. Metselaar
- Department of Targeted Therapeutic, MIRA Institute, University of Twente, Enschede, 7500 AE, The Netherlands
| | - Christopher H. Contag
- Departments of Radiology, Pediatrics and the Molecular Imaging Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Erik S. G. Stroes
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9,1105 AZ, The Netherlands
| | - Zahi A. Fayad
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | - Willem J.M. Mulder
- Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, New York 10029, United States
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9,1105 AZ, The Netherlands
- Address correspondence to
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22
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Redding B, Bromberg Y, Choma MA, Cao H. Full-field interferometric confocal microscopy using a VCSEL array. OPTICS LETTERS 2014; 39:4446-9. [PMID: 25078199 PMCID: PMC4217487 DOI: 10.1364/ol.39.004446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
We present an interferometric confocal microscope using an array of 1200 vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) coupled to a multimode fiber. Spatial coherence gating provides ~18,000 continuous virtual pinholes, allowing an entire en face plane to be imaged in a snapshot. This approach maintains the same optical sectioning as a scanning confocal microscope without moving parts, while the high power of the VCSEL array (∼5 mW per laser) enables high-speed image acquisition with integration times as short as 100 μs. Interferometric detection also recovers the phase of the image, enabling quantitative phase measurements and improving the contrast when imaging phase objects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Redding
- Department of Applied Physics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
- Corresponding authors: ;
| | - Yaron Bromberg
- Department of Applied Physics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Michael A. Choma
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Hui Cao
- Department of Applied Physics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
- Corresponding authors: ;
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23
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Basic science research in pediatric radiology - how to empower the leading edge of our field. Pediatr Radiol 2014; 44:935-9. [PMID: 25060618 DOI: 10.1007/s00247-014-2958-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Revised: 12/12/2013] [Accepted: 02/26/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Basic science research aims to explore, understand and predict phenomena in the natural world. It spurs the discovery of fundamentally new principles and leads to new knowledge and new concepts. By comparison, applied research employs basic science knowledge toward practical applications. In the clinical realm, basic science research and applied research should be closely connected. Basic science discoveries can build the foundation for a broad range of practical applications and thereby bring major benefits to human health, education, environment and economy. This article explains how basic science research impacts our field, it describes examples of new research directions in pediatric imaging and it outlines current challenges that we need to overcome in order to enable the next groundbreaking discovery.
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24
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Advances in imaging probes and optical microendoscopic imaging techniques for early in vivo cancer assessment. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2014; 74:53-74. [PMID: 24120351 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2013.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Revised: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A new chapter in the history of medical diagnosis happened when the first X-ray technology was invented in the late 1800s. Since then, many non-invasive and minimally invasive imaging techniques have been invented for clinical diagnosis to research in cellular biology, drug discovery, and disease monitoring. These imaging modalities have leveraged the benefits of significant advances in computer, electronics, and information technology and, more recently, targeted molecular imaging. The development of targeted contrast agents such as fluorescent and nanoparticle probes coupled with optical imaging techniques has made it possible to selectively view specific biological events and processes in both in vivo and ex vivo systems with great sensitivity and selectivity. Thus, the combination of targeted molecular imaging probes and optical imaging techniques have become a mainstay in modern medicinal and biological research. Many promising results have demonstrated great potentials to translate to clinical applications. In this review, we describe a discussion of employing imaging probes and optical microendoscopic imaging techniques for cancer diagnosis.
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25
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Wang D, Chen Y, Wang Y, Liu J. Comparison of line-scanned and point-scanned dual-axis confocal microscope performance. OPTICS LETTERS 2013; 38:5280-3. [PMID: 24322237 PMCID: PMC4077180 DOI: 10.1364/ol.38.005280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The point-scanned dual-axis confocal (PS-DAC) microscope has been shown to exhibit superior capability to reject out-of-focus and multiply scattered light in comparison to its conventional single-axis counterpart. However, the slow frame rate (typically <5 Hz) resulting from point-by-point data collection makes these systems vulnerable to motion artifacts. While video-rate point-scanned confocal microscopy is possible, a line-scanned dual-axis confocal (LS-DAC) microscope provides a simpler means of achieving high-speed imaging through line-by-line data collection, but sacrifices contrast due to loss of confocality along one dimension. Here we evaluate the performance trade-offs between an LS-DAC and PS-DAC microscope with identical spatial resolutions. Characterization experiments of the LS-DAC and PS-DAC microscopes with tissue phantoms, in reflectance mode, are shown to match results from Monte Carlo scattering simulations of the systems. Fluorescence images of mouse brain vasculature, obtained using resolution-matched LS-DAC and PS-DAC microscopes, demonstrate the comparable performance of LS-DAC and PS-DAC microscopy at shallow depths.
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26
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Chen SL, Xie Z, Guo LJ, Wang X. A fiber-optic system for dual-modality photoacoustic microscopy and confocal fluorescence microscopy using miniature components. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2013; 1:30-35. [PMID: 24466507 PMCID: PMC3899796 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2013.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Imaging of the cells and microvasculature simultaneously is beneficial to the study of tumor angiogenesis and microenvironments. We designed and built a fiber-optic based photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) and confocal fluorescence microscopy (CFM) dual-modality imaging system. To explore the feasibility of this all-optical device for future endoscopic applications, a microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) scanner, a miniature objective lens, and a small size optical microring resonator as an acoustic detector were employed trying to meet the requirements of miniaturization. Both the lateral resolutions of PAM and CFM were quantified to be 8.8 μm. Axial resolutions of PAM and CFM were experimentally measured to be 19 μm and 53 μm, respectively. The experiments on ex vivo animal bladder tissues demonstrate the good performance of this system in imaging not only microvasculature but also cellular structure, suggesting that this novel imaging technique holds potential for improved diagnosis and guided treatment of bladder cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Liang Chen
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Zhixing Xie
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 734 8468816.
| | - L. Jay Guo
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Xueding Wang
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 734 6472728.
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27
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Zhu H, Isikman SO, Mudanyali O, Greenbaum A, Ozcan A. Optical imaging techniques for point-of-care diagnostics. LAB ON A CHIP 2013; 13:51-67. [PMID: 23044793 PMCID: PMC3510351 DOI: 10.1039/c2lc40864c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Improving access to effective and affordable healthcare has long been a global endeavor. In this quest, the development of cost-effective and easy-to-use medical testing equipment that enables rapid and accurate diagnosis is essential to reduce the time and costs associated with healthcare services. To this end, point-of-care (POC) diagnostics plays a crucial role in healthcare delivery in both developed and developing countries by bringing medical testing to patients, or to sites near patients. As the diagnosis of a wide range of diseases, including various types of cancers and many endemics, relies on optical techniques, numerous compact and cost-effective optical imaging platforms have been developed in recent years for use at the POC. Here, we review the state-of-the-art optical imaging techniques that can have a significant impact on global health by facilitating effective and affordable POC diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongying Zhu
- Electrical Engineering Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Serhan O. Isikman
- Electrical Engineering Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Onur Mudanyali
- Electrical Engineering Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Alon Greenbaum
- Electrical Engineering Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Aydogan Ozcan
- Electrical Engineering Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Bioengineering Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute (CNSI), University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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28
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Khondee S, Wang TD. Progress in molecular imaging in endoscopy and endomicroscopy for cancer imaging. JOURNAL OF HEALTHCARE ENGINEERING 2013; 4:1-22. [PMID: 23502247 PMCID: PMC4224106 DOI: 10.1260/2040-2295.4.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Imaging is an essential tool for effective cancer management. Endoscopes are important medical instruments for performing in vivo imaging in hollow organs. Early detection of cancer can be achieved with surveillance using endoscopy, and has been shown to reduce mortality and to improve outcomes. Recently, great advancements have been made in endoscopic instruments, including new developments in optical designs, light sources, optical fibers, miniature scanners, and multimodal systems, allowing for improved resolution, greater tissue penetration, and multispectral imaging. In addition, progress has been made in the development of highly-specific optical probes, allowing for improved specificity for molecular targets. Integration of these new endoscopic instruments with molecular probes provides a unique opportunity for significantly improving patient outcomes and has potential to further improve early detection, image guided therapy, targeted therapy, and personalized medicine. This work summarizes current and evolving endoscopic technologies, and provides an overview of various promising optical molecular probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Supang Khondee
- Department of Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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James ML, Gambhir SS. A molecular imaging primer: modalities, imaging agents, and applications. Physiol Rev 2012; 92:897-965. [PMID: 22535898 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00049.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 698] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecular imaging is revolutionizing the way we study the inner workings of the human body, diagnose diseases, approach drug design, and assess therapies. The field as a whole is making possible the visualization of complex biochemical processes involved in normal physiology and disease states, in real time, in living cells, tissues, and intact subjects. In this review, we focus specifically on molecular imaging of intact living subjects. We provide a basic primer for those who are new to molecular imaging, and a resource for those involved in the field. We begin by describing classical molecular imaging techniques together with their key strengths and limitations, after which we introduce some of the latest emerging imaging modalities. We provide an overview of the main classes of molecular imaging agents (i.e., small molecules, peptides, aptamers, engineered proteins, and nanoparticles) and cite examples of how molecular imaging is being applied in oncology, neuroscience, cardiology, gene therapy, cell tracking, and theranostics (therapy combined with diagnostics). A step-by-step guide to answering biological and/or clinical questions using the tools of molecular imaging is also provided. We conclude by discussing the grand challenges of the field, its future directions, and enormous potential for further impacting how we approach research and medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L James
- Molecular Imaging Program, Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA
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Piyawattanametha W, Ra H, Qiu Z, Friedland S, Liu JTC, Loewke K, Kino GS, Solgaard O, Wang TD, Mandella MJ, Contag CH. In vivo near-infrared dual-axis confocal microendoscopy in the human lower gastrointestinal tract. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2012; 17:021102. [PMID: 22463020 PMCID: PMC3380818 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.17.2.021102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2011] [Revised: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/09/2011] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Near-infrared confocal microendoscopy is a promising technique for deep in vivo imaging of tissues and can generate high-resolution cross-sectional images at the micron-scale. We demonstrate the use of a dual-axis confocal (DAC) near-infrared fluorescence microendoscope with a 5.5-mm outer diameter for obtaining clinical images of human colorectal mucosa. High-speed two-dimensional en face scanning was achieved through a microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) scanner while a micromotor was used for adjusting the axial focus. In vivo images of human patients are collected at 5 frames/sec with a field of view of 362×212 μm(2) and a maximum imaging depth of 140 μm. During routine endoscopy, indocyanine green (ICG) was topically applied a nonspecific optical contrasting agent to regions of the human colon. The DAC microendoscope was then used to obtain microanatomic images of the mucosa by detecting near-infrared fluorescence from ICG. These results suggest that DAC microendoscopy may have utility for visualizing the anatomical and, perhaps, functional changes associated with colorectal pathology for the early detection of colorectal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wibool Piyawattanametha
- Stanford University, James H. Clark Center for Biomedical Engineering & Sciences, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford, California 94305, USA.
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31
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Mansoor H, Zeng H, Chen K, Yu Y, Zhao J, Chiao M. Vertical optical sectioning using a magnetically driven confocal microscanner aimed for in vivo clinical imaging. OPTICS EXPRESS 2011; 19:25161-72. [PMID: 22273907 DOI: 10.1364/oe.19.025161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents a confocal microscanner for direct vertical optical sectioning of biological samples. Confocal imaging is performed by transverse (X-axis) and axial (Z-axis) scanning of a focused laser beam using an optical fiber and a microlens respectively. The actuators are fabricated by laser micromachining techniques and are driven by electromagnetic forces. Optical and mechanical performance of the system is predicted by simulation software packages and characterized by experimental measurements. The scanner has lateral resolution of 3.87 µm and axial resolution of 10.68 µm with a field of view of 145 µm in X and 190 µm in Z directions. Confocal imaging of a polymer layer deposited on a silicon wafer and onion epidermal cells is demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadi Mansoor
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
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32
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Jabbour JM, Saldua MA, Bixler JN, Maitland KC. Confocal endomicroscopy: instrumentation and medical applications. Ann Biomed Eng 2011; 40:378-97. [PMID: 21994069 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-011-0426-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Advances in fiber optic technology and miniaturized optics and mechanics have propelled confocal endomicroscopy into the clinical realm. This high resolution, non-invasive imaging technology provides the ability to microscopically evaluate cellular and sub-cellular features in tissue in vivo by optical sectioning. Because many cancers originate in epithelial tissues accessible by endoscopes, confocal endomicroscopy has been explored to detect regions of possible neoplasia at an earlier stage by imaging morphological features in vivo that are significant in histopathologic evaluation. This technique allows real-time assessment of tissue which may improve diagnostic yield by guiding biopsy. Research and development continues to reduce the overall size of the imaging probe, increase the image acquisition speed, and improve resolution and field of view of confocal endomicroscopes. Technical advances will continue to enable application to less accessible organs and more complex systems in the body. Lateral and axial resolutions down to 0.5 and 3 μm, respectively, field of view as large as 800 × 450 μm, and objective lens and total probe outer diameters down to 0.35 and 1.25 mm, respectively, have been achieved. We provide a review of the historical developments of confocal imaging in vivo, the evolution of endomicroscope instrumentation, and the medical applications of confocal endomicroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joey M Jabbour
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, 3120 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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33
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Elahi SF, Wang TD. Future and advances in endoscopy. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2011; 4:471-81. [PMID: 21751414 PMCID: PMC3517128 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201100048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2011] [Revised: 06/29/2011] [Accepted: 06/30/2011] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The future of endoscopy will be dictated by rapid technological advances in the development of light sources, optical fibers, and miniature scanners that will allow for images to be collected in multiple spectral regimes, with greater tissue penetration, and in three dimensions. These engineering breakthroughs will be integrated with novel molecular probes that are highly specific for unique proteins to target diseased tissues. Applications include early cancer detection by imaging molecular changes that occur before gross morphological abnormalities, personalized medicine by visualizing molecular targets specific to individual patients, and image guided therapy by localizing tumor margins and monitoring for recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakib F. Elahi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Thomas D. Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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34
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Patel YG, Rajadhyaksha M, DiMarzio CA. Optimization of pupil design for point-scanning and line-scanning confocal microscopy. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2011; 2:2231-2242. [PMID: 21833360 PMCID: PMC3149521 DOI: 10.1364/boe.2.002231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2011] [Revised: 07/06/2011] [Accepted: 07/07/2011] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Both point-scanning and line-scanning confocal microscopes provide resolution and optical sectioning to observe nuclear and cellular detail in human tissues, and are being translated for clinical applications. While traditional point-scanning is truly confocal and offers the best possible optical sectioning and resolution, line-scanning is partially confocal but may offer a relatively simpler and lower-cost alternative for more widespread dissemination into clinical settings. The loss of sectioning and loss of contrast due to scattering in tissue is more rapid and more severe with a line-scan than with a point-scan. However, the sectioning and contrast may be recovered with the use of a divided-pupil. Thus, as part of our efforts to translate confocal microscopy for detection of skin cancer, and to determine the best possible approach for clinical applications, we are now developing a quantitative understanding of imaging performance for a set of scanning and pupil conditions. We report a Fourier-analysis-based computational model of confocal microscopy for six configurations. The six configurations are point-scanning and line-scanning, with full-pupil, half-pupil and divided-pupils. The performance, in terms of on-axis irradiance (signal), resolution and sectioning capabilities, is quantified and compared among these six configurations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogesh G. Patel
- Electrical & Computer Engineering Department, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Milind Rajadhyaksha
- Dermatology Services, Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 160 East 53rd Street, New York, New York 10010, USA
| | - Charles A. DiMarzio
- Electrical & Computer Engineering Department, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
- Mechanical & Industrial Engineering Department, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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35
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Abstract
The future of endoscopy will be dictated by rapid technological advances in the development of light sources, optical fibers, and miniature scanners that will allow for images to be collected in multiple spectral regimes, with greater tissue penetration, and in three dimensions. These engineering breakthroughs will be integrated with novel molecular probes that are highly specific for unique proteins to target diseased tissues. Applications include early cancer detection by imaging molecular changes that occur before gross morphological abnormalities, personalized medicine by visualizing molecular targets specific to individual patients, and image guided therapy by localizing tumor margins and monitoring for recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakib F Elahi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
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36
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Hendriks BHW, Bierhoff WCJ, Horikx JJL, Desjardins AE, Hezemans CA, 't Hooft GW, Lucassen GW, Mihajlovic N. High-resolution resonant and nonresonant fiber-scanning confocal microscope. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2011; 16:026007. [PMID: 21361691 DOI: 10.1117/1.3534781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
We present a novel, hand-held microscope probe for acquiring confocal images of biological tissue. This probe generates images by scanning a fiber-lens combination with a miniature electromagnetic actuator, which allows it to be operated in resonant and nonresonant scanning modes. In the resonant scanning mode, a circular field of view with a diameter of 190 μm and an angular frequency of 127 Hz can be achieved. In the nonresonant scanning mode, a maximum field of view with a width of 69 μm can be achieved. The measured transverse and axial resolutions are 0.60 and 7.4 μm, respectively. Images of biological tissue acquired in the resonant mode are presented, which demonstrate its potential for real-time tissue differentiation. With an outer diameter of 3 mm, the microscope probe could be utilized to visualize cellular microstructures in vivo across a broad range of minimally-invasive procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benno H W Hendriks
- Philips Research, Minimally Invasive Healthcare Department, Eindhoven 5656 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
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37
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Loewke KE, Camarillo DB, Piyawattanametha W, Mandella MJ, Contag CH, Thrun S, Salisbury JK. In vivo micro-image mosaicing. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2010; 58:159-71. [PMID: 20934939 DOI: 10.1109/tbme.2010.2085082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in optical imaging have led to the development of miniature microscopes that can be brought to the patient for visualizing tissue structures in vivo. These devices have the potential to revolutionize health care by replacing tissue biopsy with in vivo pathology. One of the primary limitations of these microscopes, however, is that the constrained field of view can make image interpretation and navigation difficult. In this paper, we show that image mosaicing can be a powerful tool for widening the field of view and creating image maps of microanatomical structures. First, we present an efficient algorithm for pairwise image mosaicing that can be implemented in real time. Then, we address two of the main challenges associated with image mosaicing in medical applications: cumulative image registration errors and scene deformation. To deal with cumulative errors, we present a global alignment algorithm that draws upon techniques commonly used in probabilistic robotics. To accommodate scene deformation, we present a local alignment algorithm that incorporates deformable surface models into the mosaicing framework. These algorithms are demonstrated on image sequences acquired in vivo with various imaging devices including a hand-held dual-axes confocal microscope, a miniature two-photon microscope, and a commercially available confocal microendoscope.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin E Loewke
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, StanfordUniversity, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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38
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Park HC, Song C, Jeong KH. Micromachined lens microstages for two-dimensional forward optical scanning. OPTICS EXPRESS 2010; 18:16133-16138. [PMID: 20720998 DOI: 10.1364/oe.18.016133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
This work presents a novel approach for a miniaturized optical scanning module based on lateral and piston motion of two commercial lenses by MEMS actuation. Two aspheric glass lenses of 1 mm diameter are assembled on two electrostatically actuated microstages moving along perpendicular axes to tilt optical path. The compact integration secures the effective beam aperture of 0.6 mm within the device width of 2 mm. The lens mass provides high-Q motions at low operating voltages of DC 5 V and AC 10 V, i.e., the lateral angle of 4.6 degrees at 277 Hz and the vertical angle of 5.3 degrees at 204 Hz. The device can provide a new direction for miniaturizing laser scanning based endoscopes or handheld projectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeon-Cheol Park
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Korea
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39
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Qiu Z, Pulskamp JS, Lin X, Rhee CH, Wang T, Polcawich RG, Oldham K. Large displacement vertical translational actuator based on piezoelectric thin films. JOURNAL OF MICROMECHANICS AND MICROENGINEERING : STRUCTURES, DEVICES, AND SYSTEMS 2010; 20:075016. [PMID: 25506130 PMCID: PMC4262113 DOI: 10.1088/0960-1317/20/7/075016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
A novel vertical translational microactuator based on thin-film piezoelectric actuation is presented, using a set of four compound bend-up/bend-down unimorphs to produce translational motion of a moving platform or stage. The actuation material is a chemical-solution deposited lead-zirconate-titanate (PZT) thin film. Prototype designs have shown as much as 120 μm of static displacement, with 80-90 μm displacements being typical, using four 920 μm long by 70 μm legs. Analytical models are presented that accurately describe nonlinear behavior in both static and dynamic operation of prototype stages when the dependence of piezoelectric coefficients on voltage is known. Resonance of the system is observed at a frequency of 200 Hz. The large displacement and high bandwidth of the actuators at low-voltage and low-power levels should make them useful to a variety of optical applications, including endoscopic microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Qiu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2200 Bonisteel Dr., Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2099, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Pulskamp
- U.S. Army Research Laboratory, Sensors and Electron Devices Directorate, 2800 Powder Mill Rd., Adelphi, MD, 20873, USA
| | - Xianke Lin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2350 Hayward Ave., Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2122, USA
| | - Choong-Ho Rhee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2350 Hayward Ave., Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2122, USA
| | - Thomas Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2200 Bonisteel Dr., Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2099, USA
| | - Ronald G Polcawich
- U.S. Army Research Laboratory, Sensors and Electron Devices Directorate, 2800 Powder Mill Rd., Adelphi, MD, 20873, USA
| | - Kenn Oldham
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2350 Hayward Ave., Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2122, USA
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40
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Piyawattanametha W, Wang TD. MEMS-Based Dual Axes Confocal Microendoscopy. IEEE JOURNAL OF SELECTED TOPICS IN QUANTUM ELECTRONICS : A PUBLICATION OF THE IEEE LASERS AND ELECTRO-OPTICS SOCIETY 2010; 16:804-814. [PMID: 22190845 PMCID: PMC3242380 DOI: 10.1109/jstqe.2009.2032785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a miniature, near-infrared microscope (λ = 785 nm) that uses a novel dual axes confocal architecture. Scalability is achieved with post-objective scanning, and a MEMS mirror provides real time (>4 Hz) in vivo imaging. This instrument can achieve sub-cellular resolution with deep tissue penetration and large field of view. An endoscope-compatible version can image digestive tract epithelium to guide tissue biopsy and monitor therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wibool Piyawattanametha
- National Electronics and Computer Technology Center, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand; Departments of Applied Physics, Biology, Electrical Engineering, Microbiology & Immunology, and Pediatrics, Stanford University, CA 94305 USA ()
| | - Thomas D. Wang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, and Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48104 ()
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41
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Bub G, Camelliti P, Bollensdorff C, Stuckey DJ, Picton G, Burton RAB, Clarke K, Kohl P. Measurement and analysis of sarcomere length in rat cardiomyocytes in situ and in vitro. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2010; 298:H1616-25. [PMID: 20228259 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00481.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Sarcomere length (SL) is an important determinant and indicator of cardiac mechanical function; however, techniques for measuring SL in living, intact tissue are limited. Here, we present a technique that uses two-photon microscopy to directly image striations of living cells in cardioplegic conditions, both in situ (Langendorff-perfused rat hearts and ventricular tissue slices, stained with the fluorescent marker di-4-ANEPPS) and in vitro (acutely isolated rat ventricular myocytes). Software was developed to extract SL from two-photon fluorescence image sets while accounting for measurement errors associated with motion artifact in raster-scanned images and uncertainty of the cell angle relative to the imaging plane. Monte-Carlo simulations were used to guide analysis of SL measurements by determining error bounds as a function of measurement path length. The mode of the distribution of SL measurements in resting Langendorff-perfused heart is 1.95 mum (n = 167 measurements from N = 11 hearts) after correction for tissue orientation, which was significantly greater than that in isolated cells (1.71 mum, n = 346, N = 9 isolations) or ventricular slice preparations (1.79 mum, n = 79, N = 3 hearts) under our experimental conditions. Furthermore, we find that edema in arrested Langendorff-perfused heart is associated with a mean SL increase; this occurs as a function of time ex vivo and correlates with tissue volume changes determined by magnetic resonance imaging. Our results highlight that the proposed method can be used to monitor SL in living cells and that different experimental models from the same species may display significantly different SL values under otherwise comparable conditions, which has implications for experiment design, as well as comparison and interpretation of data.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Bub
- Department of Physiology Anatomy and Genetics, Universityof Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK.
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42
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Liu JTC, Mandella MJ, Loewke NO, Haeberle H, Ra H, Piyawattanametha W, Solgaard O, Kino GS, Contag CH. Micromirror-scanned dual-axis confocal microscope utilizing a gradient-index relay lens for image guidance during brain surgery. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2010; 15:026029. [PMID: 20459274 PMCID: PMC2869369 DOI: 10.1117/1.3386055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2009] [Revised: 01/30/2010] [Accepted: 03/10/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
A fluorescence confocal microscope incorporating a 1.8-mm-diam gradient-index relay lens is developed for in vivo histological guidance during resection of brain tumors. The microscope utilizes a dual-axis confocal architecture to efficiently reject out-of-focus light for high-contrast optical sectioning. A biaxial microelectromechanical system (MEMS) scanning mirror is actuated at resonance along each axis to achieve a large field of view with low-voltage waveforms. The unstable Lissajous scan, which results from actuating the orthogonal axes of the MEMS mirror at highly disparate resonance frequencies, is optimized to fully sample 500x500 pixels at two frames per second. Optically sectioned fluorescence images of brain tissues are obtained in living mice to demonstrate the utility of this microscope for image-guided resections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan T C Liu
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Clark Center for Biomedical Engineering and Science, Stanford, California 94305, USA.
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43
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Aguirre AD, Sawinski J, Huang SW, Zhou C, Denk W, Fujimoto JG. High speed optical coherence microscopy with autofocus adjustment and a miniaturized endoscopic imaging probe. OPTICS EXPRESS 2010; 18:4222-39. [PMID: 20389435 PMCID: PMC2908909 DOI: 10.1364/oe.18.004222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2009] [Revised: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 02/08/2010] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Optical coherence microscopy (OCM) is a promising technique for high resolution cellular imaging in human tissues. An OCM system for high-speed en face cellular resolution imaging was developed at 1060 nm wavelength at frame rates up to 5 Hz with resolutions of < 4 microm axial and < 2 microm transverse. The system utilized a novel polarization compensation method to combat wavelength dependent source polarization and achieve broadband electro-optic phase modulation compatible with ultrahigh axial resolution. In addition, the system incorporated an auto-focusing feature that enables precise, near real-time alignment of the confocal and coherence gates in tissue, allowing user-friendly optimization of image quality during the imaging procedure. Ex vivo cellular images of human esophagus, colon, and cervix as well as in vivo results from human skin are presented. Finally, the system design is demonstrated with a miniaturized piezoelectric fiber-scanning probe which can be adapted for laparoscopic and endoscopic imaging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron D. Aguirre
- Research Laboratory of Electronics and Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139
USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology
USA
| | - Juergen Sawinski
- Max-Planck-Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstrasse 29, Heidelberg 69120,
Germany
| | - Shu-Wei Huang
- Research Laboratory of Electronics and Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139
USA
| | - Chao Zhou
- Research Laboratory of Electronics and Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139
USA
| | - Winfried Denk
- Max-Planck-Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstrasse 29, Heidelberg 69120,
Germany
| | - James G. Fujimoto
- Research Laboratory of Electronics and Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139
USA
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44
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Self-reporting cells. Biotechniques 2009; 46:356-7. [PMID: 19480631 DOI: 10.2144/000113140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in biomarker discovery, synthetic biology and next-generation genomics promise to make designer cells a reality in the near future. Such cells can be engineered to report on diverse aspects of their physiology, potentially opening up new avenues of biological inquiry and enhancing our understanding of cell function.
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45
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Quantifying cell-surface biomarker expression in thick tissues with ratiometric three-dimensional microscopy. Biophys J 2009; 96:2405-14. [PMID: 19289065 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2008.12.3908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2008] [Revised: 12/11/2008] [Accepted: 12/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The burgeoning fields of in vivo three-dimensional (3D) microscopy and endomicroscopy, as well as ex vivo tissue cytometry have introduced new challenges for tissue preparation and staining with exogenous molecular contrast agents. These challenges include effective delivery of the agents, and once delivered, distinguishing between bound verses unbound molecular probes. If applied topically, there are additional issues with rinsing off unbound probe, which can be nonuniform and inefficient in thick tissues, thus leading to ambiguous contrast and a large nonspecific background that may obscure molecule-specific staining. Therefore, we have developed a ratiometric 3D microscopy scheme that not only reduces the effects of nonspecific sources of contrast, but also enables quantification of the relative binding affinity of imaging probes to their biomarker targets. Here we demonstrate this ratiometric approach by simultaneously imaging a HER2/neu (erbB2)-targeted monoclonal antibody labeled with one fluorophore and an isotype-matched negative control antibody labeled with another fluorophore. By taking a pixel-by-pixel calibrated ratio between the signals from each fluorescent image channel, accurate quantification of specific versus nonspecific binding affinity is achieved with cultured cells, yielding data that are in agreement with analyses via flow cytometry. We also demonstrate quantitative 3D microscopic imaging of biomarker expression in tissue models and in thick human biopsy samples of normal, HER2-negative, and HER2-positive breast tumors. This strategy enables rapid, quantitative, and unambiguous volumetric microscopy of biomarker expression in thick tissues, including whole biopsies, and will enable real-time optical assessment of disease markers in the living body.
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46
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Santos S, Chu KK, Lim D, Bozinovic N, Ford TN, Hourtoule C, Bartoo AC, Singh SK, Mertz J. Optically sectioned fluorescence endomicroscopy with hybrid-illumination imaging through a flexible fiber bundle. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2009; 14:030502. [PMID: 19566286 DOI: 10.1117/1.3130266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
We present an endomicroscope apparatus that exhibits out-of-focus background rejection based on wide-field illumination through a flexible imaging fiber bundle. Our technique, called HiLo microscopy, involves acquiring two images, one with grid-pattern illumination and another with standard uniform illumination. An evaluation of the image contrast with grid-pattern illumination provides an optically sectioned image with low resolution. This is complemented with high-resolution information from the uniform illumination image, leading to a full-resolution image that is optically sectioned. HiLo endomicroscope movies are presented of fluorescently labeled rat colonic mucosa.
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47
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Bozinovic N, Ventalon C, Ford T, Mertz J. Fluorescence endomicroscopy with structured illumination. OPTICS EXPRESS 2008; 16:8016-25. [PMID: 18545511 DOI: 10.1364/oe.16.008016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
We present an endomicroscope apparatus that utilizes structured illumination to produce high resolution (approximately 2.6 microm) optically sectioned fluorescence images over a field of view of about 240 microm. The endomicroscope is based on the use of a flexible imaging fiber bundle with a miniaturized objective. We also present a strategy to largely suppress structured illumination artifacts that arise when imaging in thick tissue that exhibits significant out-of-focus background. To establish the potential of our endomicroscope for preclinical or clinical applications, we provide images of BCECF-AM labeled rat colonic mucosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nenad Bozinovic
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington St., Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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48
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Ra H, Piyawattanametha W, Mandella MJ, Hsiung PL, Hardy J, Wang TD, Contag CH, Kino GS, Solgaard O. Three-dimensional in vivo imaging by a handheld dual-axes confocal microscope. OPTICS EXPRESS 2008; 16:7224-32. [PMID: 18545427 PMCID: PMC2596951 DOI: 10.1364/oe.16.007224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
We present a handheld dual-axes confocal microscope that is based on a two-dimensional microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) scanner. It performs reflectance and fluorescence imaging at 488 nm wavelength, with three-dimensional imaging capability. The fully packaged microscope has a diameter of 10 mm and acquires images at 4 Hz frame rate with a maximum field of view of 400 microm x 260 microm. The transverse and axial resolutions of the handheld probe are 1.7 microm and 5.8 microm, respectively. Capability to perform real time small animal imaging is demonstrated in vivo in transgenic mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyejun Ra
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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49
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Kumar K, Hoshino K, Zhang X. Handheld subcellular-resolution single-fiber confocal microscope using high-reflectivity two-axis vertical combdrive silicon microscanner. Biomed Microdevices 2008; 10:653-60. [DOI: 10.1007/s10544-008-9176-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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50
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Liu JTC, Mandella MJ, Crawford JM, Contag CH, Wang TD, Kino GS. Efficient rejection of scattered light enables deep optical sectioning in turbid media with low-numerical-aperture optics in a dual-axis confocal architecture. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2008; 13:034020. [PMID: 18601565 DOI: 10.1117/1.2939428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Miniature endoscopic microscopes, with subcellular imaging capabilities, will enable in vivo detection of molecularly-targeted fluorescent probes for early disease detection. To optimize a dual-axis confocal microscope (DACM) design for this purpose, we use a tabletop instrument to determine the ability of this technology to perform optical sectioning deep within tissue. First, we determine how tissue scattering deteriorates the diffraction-limited transverse and vertical responses in reflectance imaging. Specifically, the vertical response of a DACM to a plane reflector is measured at various depths in a scattering phantom and compared with diffraction theory and Monte Carlo scattering simulations. Similarly, transverse line scans across a knife-edge target are performed at various depths in a scattering phantom. Second, as a practical demonstration of deep-tissue fluorescence microscopy that corroborates the findings from our scattering experiments, 3-D fluorescence images are obtained in thick human gastrointestinal mucosal specimens. Our results demonstrate efficient rejection of scattered light in a DACM, which enables deep optical sectioning in tissue with subcellular resolution that can distinguish between normal and premalignant pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan T C Liu
- Stanford University, Department of Electrical Engineering, Ginzton Laboratory, and School of Medicine, James H. Clark Center for Biomedical Engineering and Science, Stanford, California 94305, USA.
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