A G-protein-coupled chemoattractant receptor recognizes lipopolysaccharide for bacterial phagocytosis

Legionella pneumophila, a Rosetta stone to understanding bacterial pathogenesis

Legionella pneumophila is an environmentally acquired pathogen that causes respiratory disease in humans. While the discovery of L. pneumophila is relatively recent compared to other bacterial pathogens, over the past 50 years, L. pneumophila has emerged as a powerhouse for studying host-pathogen interactions. In its natural habitat of fresh water, L. pneumophila interacts with a diverse array of protozoan hosts and readily evolve to expand their host range. This has led to the accumulation of the most extensive arsenal of secreted virulence factors described for a bacterial pathogen and their ability to infect humans. Within amoebae and human alveolar macrophages, the bacteria replicate within specialized membrane-bound compartments, establishing L. pneumophila as a model for studying intracellular vacuolar pathogens. In contrast, the virulence factors required for intracellular replication are specifically tailored to individual host cells types, allowing the pathogen to adapt to variation between disparate niches. The broad host range of this pathogen, combined with the extensive diversity and genome plasticity across the Legionella genus, has thus established this bacterium as an archetype to interrogate pathogen evolution, functional genomics, and ecology. In this review, we highlight the features of Legionella that establish them as a versatile model organism, new paradigms in bacteriology and bacterial pathogenesis resulting from the study of Legionella, as well as current and future questions that will undoubtedly expand our understanding of the complex and intricate biology of the microbial world.

PIP5K-Ras bistability initiates plasma membrane symmetry breaking to regulate cell polarity and migration

Symmetry breaking, polarity establishment, and spontaneous cell protrusion formation are fundamental but poorly explained cell behaviors. Here, we demonstrate that a biochemical network, where the mutually inhibitory localization of PIP5K and Ras activities plays a central role, governs these processes. First, in resting cells devoid of cytoskeletal activity, PIP5K is uniformly elevated on the plasma membrane, while Ras activity remains minimal. Symmetry is broken by spontaneous local displacements of PIP5K, coupled with simultaneous activations of Ras and downstream signaling events, including PI3K activation. Second, knockout of PIP5K dramatically increases both the incidence and size of Ras-PI3K activation patches, accompanied by branched F-actin assembly. This leads to enhanced cortical wave formation, increased protrusive activity, and a shift in migration mode. Third, high inducible overexpression of PIP5K virtually eliminates Ras-PI3K signaling, cytoskeletal activity, and cell migration, while acute recruitment of cytosolic PIP5K to the membrane induces contraction and blebs in cancer cells. These arrested phenotypes are reversed by reducing myosin II activity, indicating myosin's involvement in the PIP5K-Ras-centered regulatory network. Remarkably, low inducible overexpression of PIP5K unexpectedly facilitates polarity establishment, highlighting PIP5K as a highly sensitive master regulator of these processes. Simulations of a computational model combining an excitable system, cytoskeletal loops, and dynamic partitioning of PIP5K recreates the experimental observations. Taken together, our results reveal that a bistable, mutually exclusive localization of PIP5K and active Ras on the plasma membrane triggers the initial symmetry breaking. Coupled actomyosin reduction and increased actin polymerization lead to intermittently extended protrusions and, with feedback from the cytoskeleton, self-organizing, complementary gradients of PIP5K versus Ras steepen, raising the threshold of the networks at the rear and lowering it at the front to generate polarity for cell migration.

Costs of being a diet generalist for the protist predator Dictyostelium discoideum

Consumers range from specialists that feed on few resources to generalists that feed on many. Generalism has the clear advantage of having more resources to exploit, but the costs that limit generalism are less clear. We explore two understudied costs of generalism in a generalist amoeba predator, Dictyostelium discoideum, feeding on naturally co-occurring bacterial prey. Both involve costs of combining prey that are suitable on their own. First, amoebas exhibit a reduction in growth rate when they switched to one species of prey bacteria from another compared to controls that experience only the second prey. The effect was consistent across all six tested species of bacteria. These switching costs typically disappear within a day, indicating adjustment to new prey bacteria. This suggests that these costs are physiological. Second, amoebas usually grow more slowly on mixtures of prey bacteria compared to the expectation based on their growth on single prey. There were clear mixing costs in three of the six tested prey mixtures, and none showed significant mixing benefits. These results support the idea that, although amoebas can consume a variety of prey, they must use partially different methods and thus must pay costs to handle multiple prey, either sequentially or simultaneously.

Transcriptomics reveal a unique phago-mixotrophic response to low nutrient concentrations in the prasinophyte Pterosperma cristatum

Constitutive mixoplankton-plastid-bearing microbial eukaryotes capable of both phototrophy and phagotrophy-are ubiquitous in marine ecosystems and facilitate carbon transfer to higher trophic levels within aquatic food webs, which supports enhanced sinking carbon flux. However, the regulation of the relative contribution of photosynthesis and prey consumption remains poorly characterized. We investigated the transcriptional dynamics behind this phenotypic plasticity in the prasinophyte green alga Pterosperma cristatum. Based on what is known of other mixoplankton species that cannot grow without photosynthesis (obligate phototrophs), we hypothesized that P. cristatum uses phagotrophy to circumvent the restrictions imposed on photosynthesis by nutrient depletion, to obtain nutrients from ingested prey, and to maintain photosynthetic carbon fixation. We observed an increase in feeding as a response to nutrient depletion, coinciding with an upregulation of expression for genes involved in essential steps of phagocytosis including prey recognition, adhesion and engulfment, transport and maturation of food vacuoles, and digestion. Unexpectedly, genes involved in the photosynthetic electron transfer chain, pigment biosynthesis, and carbon fixation were downregulated as feeding increased, implying an abatement of photosynthesis. Contrary to our original hypothesis, our results therefore suggest that depletion of inorganic nutrients triggered an alteration of trophic behavior from photosynthesis to phagotrophy in P. cristatum. While this behavior distinguishes P. cristatum from other groups of constitutive mixoplankton, its physiological response aligns with recent discoveries from natural microbial communities. These findings indicate that mixoplankton communities in nutrient-limited oceans can regulate photosynthesis against bacterivory based on nutrient availability.

Latrophilin, an adhesion GPCR with galactose-binding lectin domain involved in the innate immune response of Tribolium castaneum

Latrophilin is a member of adhesion GPCRs involved in various physiological pro1cesses. The extracellular fragment of Tribolium castaneum Latrophilin (TcLph) contains a galactose-binding lectin (GBL) domain. However, the biological function of GBL domain remains mysterious. Here, we initially studied the role of TcLph in recognizing pathogens through its GBL domain and then triggering immune defense in invertebrates. Results showed that GBL domain was highly conserved, and its predicted 3D structure was similar to rhamnose-binding lectin domain of mouse Latrophilin-1 with a unique α/β fold and two long loops. Molecular docking and ELISA results revealed the GBL domain can bind to D-galactose, L-rhamnose, lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan. The recombinant extracellular segment of TcLph and the recombinant GBL exhibited strong agglutinating and binding activities to all tested bacteria in a Ca2+-dependent manner. Moreover, TcLph was markedly induced after infection by Escherichia coli or Staphylococcus aureus, while its silencing exacerbated bacterial loads and larvae mortality. TcLph-deficient larvae significantly decreased the transcription levels of antimicrobial peptides and prophenoloxidase activating system-related genes, leading to a significant reduction in phenoloxidase activity. It indicated that TcLph functioned as a pattern recognition receptor in pathogen recognition and activated immune responses to eliminate invasive microbes, suggesting a potential target for insecticides.

Parallel evolution of the G protein-coupled receptor GrlG and the loss of fruiting body formation in the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum evolved under low relatedness

Aggregative multicellularity relies on cooperation among formerly independent cells to form a multicellular body. Previous work with Dictyostelium discoideum showed that experimental evolution under low relatedness profoundly decreased cooperation, as indicated by the loss of fruiting body formation in many clones and an increase of cheaters that contribute proportionally more to spores than to the dead stalk. Using whole-genome sequencing and variant analysis of these lines, we identified 38 single nucleotide polymorphisms in 29 genes. Each gene had 1 variant except for grlG (encoding a G protein-coupled receptor), which had 10 unique SNPs and 5 structural variants. Variants in the 5' half of grlG-the region encoding the signal peptide and the extracellular binding domain-were significantly associated with the loss of fruiting body formation; the association was not significant in the 3' half of the gene. These results suggest that the loss of grlG was adaptive under low relatedness and that at least the 5' half of the gene is important for cooperation and multicellular development. This is surprising given some previous evidence that grlG encodes a folate receptor involved in predation, which occurs only during the single-celled stage. However, non-fruiting mutants showed little increase in a parallel evolution experiment where the multicellular stage was prevented from happening. This shows that non-fruiting mutants are not generally selected by any predation advantage but rather by something-likely cheating-during the multicellular stage.

Atypical MAP kinases - new insights and directions from amoeba

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) have been the focus of many studies over the past several decades, but the understanding of one subgroup of MAPKs, orthologs of MAPK15, known as atypical MAPKs, has lagged behind others. In most organisms, specific activating signals or downstream responses of atypical MAPK signaling pathways have not yet been identified even though these MAPKs are associated with many eukaryotic processes, including cancer and embryonic development. In this Review, we discuss recent studies that are shedding new light on both the regulation and function of atypical MAPKs in different organisms. In particular, the analysis of the atypical MAPK in the amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum has revealed important roles in chemotactic responses and gene regulation. The rapid and transient phosphorylation of the atypical MAPK in these responses suggest a highly regulated activation mechanism in vivo despite the ability of atypical MAPKs to autophosphorylate in vitro. Atypical MAPK function can also impact the activation of other MAPKs in amoeba. These advances are providing new perspectives on possible MAPK roles in animals that have not been previously considered, and this might lead to the identification of potential targets for regulating cell movement in the treatment of diseases.

Melanin's Journey from Melanocytes to Keratinocytes: Uncovering the Molecular Mechanisms of Melanin Transfer and Processing

Skin pigmentation ensures efficient photoprotection and relies on the pigment melanin, which is produced by epidermal melanocytes and transferred to surrounding keratinocytes. While the molecular mechanisms of melanin synthesis and transport in melanocytes are now well characterized, much less is known about melanin transfer and processing within keratinocytes. Over the past few decades, distinct models have been proposed to explain how melanin transfer occurs at the cellular and molecular levels. However, this remains a debated topic, as up to four different models have been proposed, with evidence presented supporting each. Here, we review the current knowledge on the regulation of melanin exocytosis, internalization, processing, and polarization. Regarding the different transfer models, we discuss how these might co-exist to regulate skin pigmentation under different conditions, i.e., constitutive and facultative skin pigmentation or physiological and pathological conditions. Moreover, we discuss recent evidence that sheds light on the regulation of melanin exocytosis by melanocytes and internalization by keratinocytes, as well as how melanin is stored within these cells in a compartment that we propose be named the melanokerasome. Finally, we review the state of the art on the molecular mechanisms that lead to melanokerasome positioning above the nuclei of keratinocytes, forming supranuclear caps that shield the nuclear DNA from UV radiation. Thus, we provide a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms regulating skin pigmentation, from melanin exocytosis by melanocytes and internalization by keratinocytes to processing and polarization within keratinocytes. A better knowledge of these molecular mechanisms will clarify long-lasting questions in the field that are crucial for the understanding of skin pigmentation and can shed light on fundamental aspects of organelle biology. Ultimately, this knowledge can lead to novel therapeutic strategies to treat hypo- or hyper-pigmentation disorders, which have a high socio-economic burden on patients and healthcare systems worldwide, as well as cosmetic applications.

Nucleophosmin 1 associating with engulfment and cell motility protein 1 regulates hepatocellular carcinoma cell chemotaxis and metastasis

The chemokine, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) and its G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) and C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4), are closely associated with promoting hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) chemotaxis and metastasis. The binding of CXCL12 and CXCR4 depends on the heterotrimeric Gi proteins to regulate actin polymerisation and mobility in HCC. Although the role of GPCR/Gi signalling in carcinogenesis migration has been intensively studied, the detailed mechanism remains largely unknown. In this study, a small interfering RNA technique was used to knock down the Nucleophosmin 1 (NPM1) gene expression. Through the chemotaxis and invasion assays, wound healing, proliferation, filamentous-actin, immunofluorescence, immunohistochemical assays, and co-immunoprecipitation assays, we investigated the specific biological role and underlying mechanisms of the NPM1 in HCC. Additionally, dimethyl fumarate (DMF), a fumaric acid ester, was used to inhibit the HCC cell chemokines and metastasis by regulating ELMO1 and NPM1. Therefore, this study reported that NPM1 gene expression was upregulated in the HCC tissues and cell lines. The NPM1 knockdown significantly inhibited the proliferation, migration, and chemotaxis of the HepG2 cells in vitro. Further mechanistic studies suggested that the NPM1 interacts with ELMO1 and the CXCL12/CXCR4 pathway activates NPM1-dependent regulation of the ELMO1 localisation. Furthermore, the DMF significantly inhibited tumour metastasis induced by the NPM1/ELMO1 signalling pathway, as observed in in vitro cell functional experiments. These data suggested that as a potentially novel therapeutic approach, the simultaneous targeting of NPM1 and ELMO1 could effectively be used to treat HCC.

The Oligosaccharide Region of LPS Governs Predation of E. coli by the Bacterivorous Protist, Acanthamoeba castellanii

Protozoan predation is a major cause of bacterial mortality. The first step of predation for phagocytic amoebae is the recognition of their prey. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a major component of Gram-negative bacteria and is only present on the outer leaflet of the outer membrane lipid bilayer. LPS consists of three distinct regions: lipid A, an oligosaccharide core, and O-polysaccharide. Previous research in our lab determined that the oligosaccharide (OS) region of LPS mediates the recognition and internalization of Escherichia coli by Acanthamoeba castellanii. The oligosaccharide region is conceptually divided into the inner core and outer core. The LPS of any given E. coli strain contains only one of five different OS structures: K-12 and R1 to R4. All OSs contain the same inner core sugars but different outer core sugars. Here, we show that the Kdo2 moiety of the inner core is necessary and sufficient for E. coli recognition and internalization by A. castellanii. We also show that the precise composition of the variable outer core OS region modulates the efficiency with which A. castellanii consumes bacteria. The latter finding indicates that outer core OS composition plays a role in bacterial defense against phagocytic predators. IMPORTANCE Rather than being transmitted from host to host, most opportunistic bacterial pathogens reside in the environment for significant amounts of time. Protist predation is a major cause of bacterial mortality. To enhance their survival in the environment, bacteria have evolved various defense strategies such as filamentation, increased motility, biofilm formation, toxin release, and modification of cell wall structure; strategies which also enhance their virulence to humans. This work shows that the major component of the bacterial cell wall, LPS, also known as bacterial endotoxin, is a "dual use" factor, regulating amoeba predation of bacteria in addition to its well-known role as a human virulence factor. Both these functions are governed by the same parts of LPS. Thus, the structure and composition of this "dual use" factor likely evolved as a response to constant voracious protist grazing pressure in the environment, rather than during short-term infections of human and animals.

Genome-scale CRISPR screening reveals that C3aR signaling is critical for rapid capture of fungi by macrophages

The fungal pathogen Histoplasma capsulatum (Hc) invades, replicates within, and destroys macrophages. To interrogate the molecular mechanisms underlying this interaction, we conducted a host-directed CRISPR-Cas9 screen and identified 361 genes that modify macrophage susceptibility to Hc infection, greatly expanding our understanding of host gene networks targeted by Hc. We identified pathways that have not been previously implicated in Hc interaction with macrophages, including the ragulator complex (involved in nutrient stress sensing), glycosylation enzymes, protein degradation machinery, mitochondrial respiration genes, solute transporters, and the ER membrane complex (EMC). The highest scoring protective hits included the complement C3a receptor (C3aR), a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) that recognizes the complement fragment C3a. Although it is known that complement components react with the fungal surface, leading to opsonization and release of small peptide fragments such as C3a, a role for C3aR in macrophage interactions with fungi has not been elucidated. We demonstrated that whereas C3aR is dispensable for macrophage phagocytosis of bacteria and latex beads, it is critical for optimal macrophage capture of pathogenic fungi, including Hc, the ubiquitous fungal pathogen Candida albicans, and the causative agent of Valley Fever Coccidioides posadasii. We showed that C3aR localizes to the early phagosome during Hc infection where it coordinates the formation of actin-rich membrane protrusions that promote Hc capture. We also showed that the EMC promotes surface expression of C3aR, likely explaining its identification in our screen. Taken together, our results provide new insight into host processes that affect Hc-macrophage interactions and uncover a novel and specific role for C3aR in macrophage recognition of fungi.

Dual regulation of the actin cytoskeleton by CARMIL-GAP

Capping protein Arp2/3 myosin I linker (CARMIL) proteins are multi-domain scaffold proteins that regulate actin dynamics by regulating the activity of capping protein (CP). Here, we characterize CARMIL-GAP (GAP for GTPase-activating protein), a Dictyostelium CARMIL isoform that contains a ∼130 residue insert that, by homology, confers GTPase-activating properties for Rho-related GTPases. Consistent with this idea, this GAP domain binds Dictyostelium Rac1a and accelerates its rate of GTP hydrolysis. CARMIL-GAP concentrates with F-actin in phagocytic cups and at the leading edge of chemotaxing cells, and CARMIL-GAP-null cells exhibit pronounced defects in phagocytosis and chemotactic streaming. Importantly, these defects are fully rescued by expressing GFP-tagged CARMIL-GAP in CARMIL-GAP-null cells. Finally, rescue with versions of CARMIL-GAP that lack either GAP activity or the ability to regulate CP show that, although both activities contribute significantly to CARMIL-GAP function, the GAP activity plays the bigger role. Together, our results add to the growing evidence that CARMIL proteins influence actin dynamics by regulating signaling molecules as well as CP, and that the continuous cycling of the nucleotide state of Rho GTPases is often required to drive Rho-dependent biological processes.

Summary:Dictyostelium CARMIL-GAP supports phagocytosis and chemotaxis by regulating both capping protein and Rac1.

How Phagocytes Acquired the Capability of Hunting and Removing Pathogens From a Human Body: Lessons Learned From Chemotaxis and Phagocytosis of Dictyostelium discoideum (Review)

How phagocytes find invading microorganisms and eliminate pathogenic ones from human bodies is a fundamental question in the study of infectious diseases. About 2.5 billion years ago, eukaryotic unicellular organisms-protozoans-appeared and started to interact with various bacteria. Less than 1 billion years ago, multicellular animals-metazoans-appeared and acquired the ability to distinguish self from non-self and to remove harmful organisms from their bodies. Since then, animals have developed innate immunity in which specialized white-blood cells phagocytes- patrol the body to kill pathogenic bacteria. The social amoebae Dictyostelium discoideum are prototypical phagocytes that chase various bacteria via chemotaxis and consume them as food via phagocytosis. Studies of this genetically amendable organism have revealed evolutionarily conserved mechanisms underlying chemotaxis and phagocytosis and shed light on studies of phagocytes in mammals. In this review, we briefly summarize important studies that contribute to our current understanding of how phagocytes effectively find and kill pathogens via chemotaxis and phagocytosis.

Microbial warfare in the wild-the impact of protists on the evolution and virulence of bacterial pathogens

During the long history of co-evolution with protists, bacteria have evolved defense strategies to avoid grazing and survive phagocytosis. These mechanisms allow bacteria to exploit phagocytic cells as a protective niche in which to escape from environmental stress and even replicate. Importantly, these anti-grazing mechanisms can function as virulence factors when bacteria infect humans. Here, we discuss how protozoan predation exerts a selective pressure driving bacterial virulence and shaping their genomes, and how bacteria-protist interactions might contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance as well. We provide examples to demonstrate that besides being voracious bacterial predators, protozoa can serve as melting pots where intracellular organisms exchange genetic information, or even "training grounds" where some pathogens become hypervirulent after passing through. In this special issue, we would like to emphasize the tremendous impact of bacteria-protist interactions on human health and the potential of amoebae as model systems to study biology and evolution of a variety of pathogens. Besides, a better understanding of bacteria-protist relationships will help us expand our current understanding of bacterial virulence and, likely, how pathogens emerge.

Mathematical modeling of chemotaxis guided amoeboid cell swimming

Cells and microorganisms adopt various strategies to migrate in response to different environmental stimuli. To date, many modeling research has focused on the crawling-basedDictyostelium discoideum(Dd) cells migration induced by chemotaxis, yet recent experimental results reveal that even without adhesion or contact to a substrate, Dd cells can still swim to follow chemoattractant signals. In this paper, we develop a modeling framework to investigate the chemotaxis induced amoeboid cell swimming dynamics. A minimal swimming system consists of one deformable Dd amoeboid cell and a dilute suspension of bacteria, and the bacteria produce chemoattractant signals that attract the Dd cell. We use themathematical amoeba modelto generate Dd cell deformation and solve the resulting low Reynolds number flows, and use a moving mesh based finite volume method to solve the reaction-diffusion-convection equation. Using the computational model, we show that chemotaxis guides a swimming Dd cell to follow and catch bacteria, while on the other hand, bacterial rheotaxis may help the bacteria to escape from the predator Dd cell.

Origins of eukaryotic excitability

All living cells interact dynamically with a constantly changing world. Eukaryotes, in particular, evolved radically new ways to sense and react to their environment. These advances enabled new and more complex forms of cellular behaviour in eukaryotes, including directional movement, active feeding, mating, and responses to predation. But what are the key events and innovations during eukaryogenesis that made all of this possible? Here we describe the ancestral repertoire of eukaryotic excitability and discuss five major cellular innovations that enabled its evolutionary origin. The innovations include a vastly expanded repertoire of ion channels, the emergence of cilia and pseudopodia, endomembranes as intracellular capacitors, a flexible plasma membrane and the relocation of chemiosmotic ATP synthesis to mitochondria, which liberated the plasma membrane for more complex electrical signalling involved in sensing and reacting. We conjecture that together with an increase in cell size, these new forms of excitability greatly amplified the degrees of freedom associated with cellular responses, allowing eukaryotes to vastly outperform prokaryotes in terms of both speed and accuracy. This comprehensive new perspective on the evolution of excitability enriches our view of eukaryogenesis and emphasizes behaviour and sensing as major contributors to the success of eukaryotes. This article is part of the theme issue 'Basal cognition: conceptual tools and the view from the single cell'.

Imaging GPCR-Mediated Signal Events Leading to Chemotaxis and Phagocytosis

Eukaryotic phagocytes locate microorganisms via chemotaxis and consume them through phagocytosis. The social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum is a stereotypical phagocyte and a well-established model to study both processes. Recent studies show that a G-protein-coupled receptor (fAR1) mediate a signaling network to control reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton leading both the directional cell movement and the engulfment of bacteria. Many live cell imaging methods have been developed and applied to monitor these signaling events. In this chapter, we will introduce how to measure GPCR-mediated signaling events for cell migration and phagocytosis in Dictyostelium.

A rhamnose-binding lectin from Rhodnius prolixus and the impact of its silencing on gut bacterial microbiota and Trypanosoma cruzi

Lectins are ubiquitous proteins involved in the immune defenses of different organisms and mainly responsible for non-self-recognition and agglutination reactions. This work describes molecular and biological characterization of a rhamnose-binding lectin (RBL) from Rhodnius prolixus, which possesses a 21 amino acid signal peptide and a mature protein of 34.6 kDa. The in-silico analysis of the primary and secondary structures of RpLec revealed a lectin domain fully conserved among previous insects studied. The three-dimensional homology model of RpLec was similar to other RBL-lectins. Docking predictions with the monosaccharides showed rhamnose and galactose-binding sites comparable to Latrophilin-1 and N-Acetylgalactosamine-binding in a different site. The effects of RpLec gene silencing on levels of infecting Trypanosoma cruzi Dm 28c and intestinal bacterial populations in the R. prolixus midgut were studied by injecting RpLec dsRNA into the R. prolixus hemocoel. Whereas T. cruzi numbers remained unchanged compared with the controls, numbers of bacteria increased significantly. The silencing also induced the up regulation of the R. prolixus defC (defensin) expression gene. These results with RpLec reveal the potential importance of this little studied molecule in the insect vector immune response and homeostasis of the gut bacterial microbiota.

Membrane Trafficking and Subcellular Drug Targeting Pathways

The movement of micro and macro molecules into and within a cell significantly governs several of their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters, thus regulating the cellular response to exogenous and endogenous stimuli. Trafficking of various pharmacological agents and other bioactive molecules throughout and within the cell is necessary for the fidelity of the cells but has been poorly investigated. Novel strategies against cancer and microbial infections need a deeper understanding of membrane as well as subcellular trafficking pathways and essentially regulate several aspects of the initiation and spread of anti-microbial and anti-cancer drug resistance. Furthermore, in order to avail the maximum possible bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy and to restrict the unwanted toxicity of pharmacological bioactives, these sometimes need to be functionalized with targeting ligands to regulate the subcellular trafficking and to enhance the localization. In the recent past the scenario drug targeting has primarily focused on targeting tissue components and cell vicinities, however, it is the membranous and subcellular trafficking system that directs the molecules to plausible locations. The effectiveness of the delivery platforms largely depends on their physicochemical nature, intracellular barriers, and biodistribution of the drugs, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic paradigms. Most subcellular organelles possess some peculiar characteristics by which membranous and subcellular targeting can be manipulated, such as negative transmembrane potential in mitochondria, intraluminal delta pH in a lysosome, and many others. Many specialized methods, which positively promote the subcellular targeting and restrict the off-targeting of the bioactive molecules, exist. Recent advancements in designing the carrier molecules enable the handling of membrane trafficking to facilitate the delivery of active compounds to subcellular localizations. This review aims to cover membrane trafficking pathways which promote the delivery of the active molecule in to the subcellular locations, the associated pathways of the subcellular drug delivery system, and the role of the carrier system in drug delivery techniques.

Transcriptional Responses of Dictyostelium discoideum Exposed to Different Classes of Bacteria

Dictyostelium discoideum amoebae feed by ingesting bacteria, then killing them in phagosomes. Ingestion and killing of different bacteria have been shown to rely on largely different molecular mechanisms. One would thus expect that D. discoideum adapts its ingestion and killing machinery when encountering different bacteria. In this study, we investigated by RNA sequencing if and how D. discoideum amoebae respond to the presence of different bacteria by modifying their gene expression patterns. Each bacterial species analyzed induced a specific modification of the transcriptome. Bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, or Mycobacterium marinum induced a specific and different transcriptional response, while Micrococcus luteus did not trigger a significant gene regulation. Although folate has been proposed to be one of the key molecules secreted by bacteria and recognized by hunting amoebae, it elicited a very specific and restricted transcriptional signature, distinct from that triggered by any bacteria analyzed here. Our results indicate that D. discoideum amoebae respond in a highly specific, almost non-overlapping manner to different species of bacteria. We additionally identify specific sets of genes that can be used as reporters of the response of D. discoideum to different bacteria.

The Impact of Protozoan Predation on the Pathogenicity of Vibrio cholerae

In the aquatic environment, Vibrio spp. interact with many living organisms that can serve as a replication niche, including heterotrophic protists, or protozoa. Protozoa engulf bacteria and package them into phagosomes where the cells are exposed to low pH, antimicrobial peptides, reactive oxygen/nitrogen species, proteolytic enzymes, and low concentrations of essential metal ions such as iron. However, some bacteria can resist these digestive processes. For example, Vibrio cholerae and Vibrio harveyi can resist intracellular digestion. In order to survive intracellularly, bacteria have acquired and/or developed specific factors that help them to resist the unfavorable conditions encountered inside of the phagosomes. Many of these intra-phagosomal factors used to kill and digest bacteria are highly conserved between eukaryotic cells and thus are also expressed by the innate immune system in the gastrointestinal tract as the first line of defense against bacterial pathogens. Since pathogenic bacteria have been shown to be hypervirulent after they have passed through protozoa, the resistance to digestion by protist hosts in their natural environment plays a key role in enhancing the infectious potential of pathogenic Vibrio spp. This review will investigate the current knowledge in interactions of bacteria with protozoa and human host to better understand the mechanisms used by both protozoa and human hosts to kill bacteria and the bacterial response to them.

The origins and evolution of macropinocytosis

In macropinocytosis, cells take up micrometre-sized droplets of medium into internal vesicles. These vesicles are acidified and fused to lysosomes, their contents digested and useful compounds extracted. Indigestible contents can be exocytosed. Macropinocytosis has been known for approaching 100 years and is described in both metazoa and amoebae, but not in plants or fungi. Its evolutionary origin goes back to at least the common ancestor of the amoebozoa and opisthokonts, with apparent secondary loss from fungi. The primary function of macropinocytosis in amoebae and some cancer cells is feeding, but the conserved processing pathway for macropinosomes, which involves shrinkage and the retrieval of membrane to the cell surface, has been adapted in immune cells for antigen presentation. Macropinocytic cups are large actin-driven processes, closely related to phagocytic cups and pseudopods and appear to be organized around a conserved signalling patch of PIP3, active Ras and active Rac that directs actin polymerization to its periphery. Patches can form spontaneously and must be sustained by excitable kinetics with strong cooperation from the actin cytoskeleton. Growth-factor signalling shares core components with macropinocytosis, based around phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase), and we suggest that it evolved to take control of ancient feeding structures through a coupled growth factor receptor. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Macropinocytosis'.

G-protein-coupled formyl peptide receptors play a dual role in neutrophil chemotaxis and bacterial phagocytosis

A dogma of innate immunity is that neutrophils use G-protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) for chemoattractant to chase bacteria through chemotaxis and then use phagocytic receptors coupled with tyrosine kinases to destroy opsonized bacteria via phagocytosis. Our current work showed that G-protein–coupled formyl peptide receptors (FPRs) directly mediate neutrophil phagocytosis. Mouse neutrophils lacking formyl peptide receptors (Fpr1/2^–/–) are defective in the phagocytosis of Escherichia coli and the chemoattractant N-formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLP)-coated beads. fMLP immobilized onto the surface of a bead interacts with FPRs, which trigger a Ca²⁺ response and induce actin polymerization to form a phagocytic cup for engulfment of the bead. This chemoattractant GPCR/Gi signaling works independently of phagocytic receptor/tyrosine kinase signaling to promote phagocytosis. Thus, in addition to phagocytic receptor-mediated phagocytosis, neutrophils also utilize the chemoattractant GPCR/Gi signaling to mediate phagocytosis to fight against invading bacteria.