AMPK regulates germline stem cell quiescence and integrity through an endogenous small RNA pathway

Chromatin and epigenetics in aging biology

This book chapter will focus on modifications to chromatin itself, how chromatin modifications are regulated, and how these modifications are deciphered by the cell to impact aging. In this chapter, we will review how chromatin modifications change with age, examine how chromatin-modifying enzymes have been shown to regulate aging and healthspan, discuss how some of these epigenetic changes are triggered and how they can regulate the lifespan of the individual and its naïve descendants, and speculate on future directions for the field.

Conserved components of the macroautophagy machinery in Caenorhabditis elegans

Macroautophagy involves the sequestration of cytoplasmic contents in a double-membrane autophagosome and its subsequent delivery to lysosomes for degradation and recycling. In Caenorhabditis elegans, autophagy participates in diverse processes such as stress resistance, cell fate specification, tissue remodeling, aging, and adaptive immunity. Genetic screens in C. elegans have identified a set of metazoan-specific autophagy genes that form the basis for our molecular understanding of steps unique to the autophagy pathway in multicellular organisms. Suppressor screens have uncovered multiple mechanisms that modulate autophagy activity under physiological conditions. C. elegans also provides a model to investigate how autophagy activity is coordinately controlled at an organismal level. In this chapter, we will discuss the molecular machinery, regulation, and physiological functions of autophagy, and also methods utilized for monitoring autophagy during C. elegans development.

Intergenerational transport of double-stranded RNA in C. elegans can limit heritable epigenetic changes

RNAs in circulation carry sequence-specific regulatory information between cells in plant, animal, and host-pathogen systems. Such RNA can cross generational boundaries, as evidenced by somatic double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans silencing genes of matching sequence in progeny. Here we dissect the intergenerational path taken by dsRNA from parental circulation and discover that cytosolic import through the dsRNA importer SID-1 in the parental germline and/or developing progeny varies with developmental time and dsRNA substrates. Loss of SID-1 enhances initiation of heritable RNA silencing within the germline and causes changes in the expression of the sid-1-dependent gene sdg-1 that last for more than 100 generations after restoration of SID-1. The SDG-1 protein is enriched in perinuclear germ granules required for heritable RNA silencing but is expressed from a retrotransposon targeted by such silencing. This auto-inhibitory loop suggests how retrotransposons could persist by hosting genes that regulate their own silencing.

Non-autonomous insulin signaling delays mitotic progression in C. elegans germline stem and progenitor cells

Stem and progenitor cell mitosis is essential for tissue development and homeostasis. How these cells ensure proper chromosome segregation, and thereby maintain mitotic fidelity, in the complex physiological environment of a living animal is poorly understood. Here we use in situ live-cell imaging of C. elegans germline stem and progenitor cells (GSPCs) to ask how the signaling environment influences stem and progenitor cell mitosis in vivo. Through a candidate screen we identify a new role for the insulin/IGF receptor (IGFR), daf-2, during GSPC mitosis. Mitosis is delayed in daf-2/IGFR mutants, and these delays require canonical, DAF-2/IGFR to DAF-16/FoxO insulin signaling, here acting cell non-autonomously from the soma. Interestingly, mitotic delays in daf-2/IGFR mutants depend on the spindle assembly checkpoint but are not accompanied by a loss of mitotic fidelity. Correspondingly, we show that caloric restriction, which delays GSPC mitosis and compromises mitotic fidelity, does not act via the canonical insulin signaling pathway, and instead requires AMP-activated kinase (AMPK). Together this work demonstrates that GSPC mitosis is influenced by at least two genetically separable signaling pathways and highlights the importance of signaling networks for proper stem and progenitor cell mitosis in vivo.

Neuronal exosomes transport an miRISC cargo to preserve stem cell integrity during energy stress

During periods of nutrient scarcity, many animals undergo germline quiescence to preserve reproductive capacity, and neurons are often necessary for this adaptation. We show here that starvation causes the release of neuronal microRNA (miRNA)/Argonaute-loaded exosomes following AMP kinase-regulated trafficking changes within serotonergic neurons. This neuron-to-germline communication is independent of classical neurotransmission but instead relies on endosome-derived vesicles that carry a pro-quiescent small RNA cargo to modify germline gene expression. Using an miRNA activity sensor, we show that neuronally expressed miRNAs can extinguish the expression of germline mRNA targets in an exosome-dependent manner. Our findings demonstrate how an adaptive neuronal response can change gene expression at a distance by redirecting intracellular trafficking to release neuronal exosomes with specific miRNA cargoes capable of tracking to their appropriate destinations.

Developmental plasticity: a worm's eye view

Numerous examples of different phenotypic outcomes in response to varying environmental conditions have been described across phyla, from plants to mammals. Here, we examine the impact of the environment on different developmental traits, focusing in particular on one key environmental variable, nutrient availability. We present advances in our understanding of developmental plasticity in response to food variation using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, which provides a near-isogenic context while permitting lab-controlled environments and analysis of wild isolates. We discuss how this model has allowed investigators not only to describe developmental plasticity events at the organismal level but also to zoom in on the tissues involved in translating changes in the environment into a plastic response, as well as the underlying molecular pathways, and sometimes associated changes in behaviour. Lastly, we also discuss how early life starvation experiences can be logged to later impact adult physiological traits, and how such memory could be wired.

Mobilization of cholesterol induces the transition from quiescence to growth in Caenorhabditis elegans through steroid hormone and mTOR signaling

Recovery from the quiescent developmental stage called dauer is an essential process in C. elegans and provides an excellent model to understand how metabolic transitions contribute to developmental plasticity. Here we show that cholesterol bound to the small secreted proteins SCL-12 or SCL-13 is sequestered in the gut lumen during the dauer state. Upon recovery from dauer, bound cholesterol undergoes endocytosis into lysosomes of intestinal cells, where SCL-12 and SCL-13 are degraded and cholesterol is released. Free cholesterol activates mTORC1 and is used for the production of dafachronic acids. This leads to promotion of protein synthesis and growth, and a metabolic switch at the transcriptional level. Thus, mobilization of sequestered cholesterol stores is the key event for transition from quiescence to growth, and cholesterol is the major signaling molecule in this process.

Transcriptional and spatiotemporal regulation of the dauer program

Caenorhabditis elegans can enter a diapause stage called "dauer" when it senses that the environment is not suitable for development. This implies a detour from the typical developmental trajectory and requires a tight control of the developmental clock and a massive tissue remodeling. In the last decades, core components of the signaling pathways that govern the dauer development decision have been identified, but the tissues where they function for the acquisition of dauer-specific traits are still under intense study. Growing evidence demonstrates that these pathways engage in complex cross-talk and feedback loops. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge regarding the transcriptional regulation of the dauer program and the relevant tissues for its achievement. A better understanding of this process will provide insight on how developmental plasticity is achieved and how development decisions are under a robust regulation to ensure an all-or-nothing response. Furthermore, this developmental decision can also serve as a simplified model for relevant developmental disorders.Abbreviations: AID Auxin Induced Degron DA dafachronic acid Daf-c dauer formation constitutive Daf-d dauer formation defective DTC Distal Tip Cells ECM modified extracellular matrix GPCRs G protein-coupled receptors IIS insulin/IGF-1 signaling ILPs insulin-like peptides LBD Ligand Binding Domain PDL4 Post Dauer L4 TGF-β transforming growth factor beta WT wild-type.

Versatile function of AMPK signaling in osteosarcoma: An old player with new emerging carcinogenic functions

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling has a versatile role in Osteosarcoma (OS), an aggressive bone malignancy with a poor prognosis, particularly in cases that have metastasized or recurred. This review explores the regulatory mechanisms, functional roles, and therapeutic applications of AMPK signaling in OS. It focuses on the molecular activation of AMPK and its interactions with cellular processes like proliferation, apoptosis, and metabolism. The uncertain role of AMPK in cancer is also discussed, highlighting its potential as both a tumor suppressor and a contributor to carcinogenesis. The therapeutic potential of targeting AMPK signaling in OS treatment is examined, including direct and indirect activators like metformin, A-769662, resveratrol, and salicylate. Further research is needed to determine dosing, toxicities, and molecular mechanisms responsible for the anti-osteosarcoma effects of these compounds. This review underscores the complex involvement of AMPK signaling in OS and emphasizes the need for a comprehensive understanding of its molecular mechanisms. By elucidating the role of AMPK in OS, the aim is to pave the way for innovative therapeutic approaches that target this pathway, ultimately improving the prognosis and quality of life for OS patients.

Notch pathway is required for protection against heat stress in spermatogonial stem cells in medaka

Gamete production is a fundamental process for reproduction; however, exposure to stress, such as increased environmental temperature, can decrease or even interrupt this process, affecting fertility. Thus, the survival of spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) is crucial for the recovery of spermatogenesis upon stressful situations. Here, we show that the Notch pathway is implicated in such survival, by protecting the SSCs against thermal stress. First, we corroborated the impairment of spermatogenesis under heat stress in medaka, observing an arrest in metaphase I at 10 days of heat treatment, an increase in the number of spermatocytes, and downregulation of ndrg1b and sycp3. In addition, at 30 days of treatment, an interruption of spermatogenesis was observed with a strong loss of spermatocytes and spermatids. Then, the exposure of adult males to thermal stress condition induced apoptosis mainly in spermatogenic and supporting somatic cells, with the exception of the germinal region, where SSCs are located. Concomitantly, the Notch pathway-related genes were upregulated, including the ligands (dll4, jag1-2) and receptors (notch1a-3). Moreover, during thermal stress presenilin enhancer-2 (pen-2), the catalytic subunit of γ-secretase complex of the Notch pathway was restricted to the germinal region of the medaka testis, observed in somatic cells surrounding type A spermatogonia (SGa). The importance of Notch pathway was further supported by an ex vivo approach, in which the inhibition of this pathway activity induced a loss of SSCs. Overall, this study supports the importance of Notch pathways for the protection of SSCs under chronic thermal stress.

A new AMPK isoform mediates glucose-restriction induced longevity non-cell autonomously by promoting membrane fluidity

Dietary restriction (DR) delays aging and the onset of age-associated diseases. However, it is yet to be determined whether and how restriction of specific nutrients promote longevity. Previous genome-wide screens isolated several Escherichia coli mutants that extended lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans. Here, using ¹H-NMR metabolite analyses and inter-species genetics, we demonstrate that E. coli mutants depleted of intracellular glucose extend C. elegans lifespans, serving as bona fide glucose-restricted (GR) diets. Unlike general DR, GR diets don't reduce the fecundity of animals, while still improving stress resistance and ameliorating neuro-degenerative pathologies of Aβ₄₂. Interestingly, AAK-2a, a new AMPK isoform, is necessary and sufficient for GR-induced longevity. AAK-2a functions exclusively in neurons to modulate GR-mediated longevity via neuropeptide signaling. Last, we find that GR/AAK-2a prolongs longevity through PAQR-2/NHR-49/Δ9 desaturases by promoting membrane fluidity in peripheral tissues. Together, our studies identify the molecular mechanisms underlying prolonged longevity by glucose specific restriction in the context of whole animals.

Unscheduled epigenetic modifications cause genome instability and sterility through aberrant R-loops following starvation

During starvation, organisms modify both gene expression and metabolism to adjust to the energy stress. We previously reported that Caenorhabditis elegans lacing AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) exhibit transgenerational reproductive defects associated with abnormally elevated trimethylated histone H3 at lysine 4 (H3K4me3) levels in the germ line following recovery from acute starvation. Here, we show that these H3K4me3 marks are significantly increased at promoters, driving aberrant transcription elongation resulting in the accumulation of R-loops in starved AMPK mutants. DNA-RNA immunoprecipitation followed by high-throughput sequencing (DRIP-seq) analysis demonstrated that a significant proportion of the genome was affected by R-loop formation. This was most pronounced in the promoter-transcription start site regions of genes, in which the chromatin was modified by H3K4me3. Like H3K4me3, the R-loops were also found to be heritable, likely contributing to the transgenerational reproductive defects typical of these mutants following starvation. Strikingly, AMPK mutant germ lines show considerably more RAD-51 (the RecA recombinase) foci at sites of R-loop formation, potentially sequestering them from their roles at meiotic breaks or at sites of induced DNA damage. Our study reveals a previously unforeseen role of AMPK in maintaining genome stability following starvation. The downstream effects of R-loops on DNA damage sensitivity and germline stem cell integrity may account for inappropriate epigenetic modification that occurs in numerous human disorders, including various cancers.

The CHARGE syndrome ortholog CHD-7 regulates TGF-β pathways in Caenorhabditis elegans

CHARGE syndrome is a complex developmental disorder caused by mutations in the chromodomain helicase DNA-binding protein-7 (CHD7) and characterized by retarded growth and malformations in the heart and nervous system. Despite the public health relevance of this disorder, relevant cellular pathways and targets of CHD7 that relate to disease pathology are still poorly understood. Here we report that chd-7, the nematode ortholog of Chd7, is required for dauer morphogenesis, lifespan determination, stress response, and body size determination. Consistent with our discoveries, we found chd-7 to be allelic to scd-3, a previously identified dauer suppressor from the DAF-7/ tumor growth factor-β (TGF-β) pathway. Epistatic analysis places CHD-7 at the level of the DAF-3/DAF-5 complex, but we found that CHD-7 also directly impacts the expression of multiple components of this pathway. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that chd-7 mutants fail to repress daf-9 for execution of the dauer program. In addition, CHD-7 regulates the DBL-1/BMP pathway components and shares roles in male tail development and cuticle synthesis. To explore a potential conserved function for chd-7 in vertebrates, we used Xenopus laevis embryos, an established model to study craniofacial development. Morpholino-mediated knockdown of Chd7 led to a reduction in col2a1 messenger RNA (mRNA) levels, a collagen whose expression depends on TGF-β signaling. Both embryonic lethality and craniofacial defects in Chd7-depleted tadpoles were partially rescued by overexpression of col2a1 mRNA. We suggest that Chd7 has conserved roles in regulation of the TGF-β signaling pathway and pathogenic Chd7 could lead to a defective extracellular matrix deposition.

C. elegans as a model organism to study female reproductive health

Female reproductive health has been historically understudied and underfunded. Here, we present the advantages of using a free-living nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, as an animal system to study fundamental aspects of female reproductive health. C. elegans is a powerful high-throughput model organism that shares key genetic and physiological similarities with humans. In this review, we highlight areas of pressing medical and biological importance in the 21st century within the context of female reproductive health. These include the decline in female reproductive capacity with increasing chronological age, reproductive dysfunction arising from toxic environmental insults, and cancers of the reproductive system. C. elegans has been instrumental in uncovering mechanistic insights underlying these processes, and has been valuable for developing and testing therapeutics to combat them. Adopting a convenient model organism such as C. elegans for studying reproductive health will encourage further research into this field, and broaden opportunities for making advancements into evolutionarily conserved mechanisms that control reproductive function.

Small RNAs couple embryonic developmental programs to gut microbes

Embryogenesis has long been known for its robustness to environmental factors. Although developmental tuning of embryogenesis to the environment experienced by the parent may be beneficial, little is understood on whether and how developmental patterns proactively change. Here, we show that Caenorhabditis elegans undergoes alternative embryogenesis in response to maternal gut microbes. Harmful microbes result in altered endodermal cell divisions; morphological changes, including left-right asymmetric development; double association between intestinal and primordial germ cells; and partial rescue of fecundity. The miR-35 microRNA family, which is controlled by systemic endogenous RNA interference and targets the β-transducin repeat-containing protein/cell division cycle 25 (CDC25) pathway, transmits intergenerational information to regulate cell divisions and reproduction. Our findings challenge the widespread assumption that C. elegans has an invariant cell lineage that consists of a fixed cell number and provide insights into how organisms optimize embryogenesis to adapt to environmental changes through epigenetic control.

Hormonal Regulation of Diapause and Development in Nematodes, Insects, and Fishes

Diapause is a state of developmental arrest adopted in response to or in anticipation of environmental conditions that are unfavorable for growth. In many cases, diapause is facultative, such that animals may undergo either a diapause or a non-diapause developmental trajectory, depending on environmental cues. Diapause is characterized by enhanced stress resistance, reduced metabolism, and increased longevity. The ability to postpone reproduction until suitable conditions are found is important to the survival of many animals, and both vertebrate and invertebrate species can undergo diapause. The decision to enter diapause occurs at the level of the whole animal, and thus hormonal signaling pathways are common regulators of the diapause decision. Unlike other types of developmental arrest, diapause is programmed, such that the diapause developmental trajectory includes a pre-diapause preparatory phase, diapause itself, recovery from diapause, and post-diapause development. Therefore, developmental pathways are profoundly affected by diapause. Here, I review two conserved hormonal pathways, insulin/IGF signaling (IIS) and nuclear hormone receptor signaling (NHR), and their role in regulating diapause across three animal phyla. Specifically, the species reviewed are Austrofundulus limnaeus and Nothobranchius furzeri annual killifishes, Caenorhabditis elegans nematodes, and insect species including Drosophila melanogaster, Culex pipiens, and Bombyx mori. In addition, the developmental changes that occur as a result of diapause are discussed, with a focus on how IIS and NHR pathways interact with core developmental pathways in C. elegans larvae that undergo diapause.

Developmental plasticity and the response to nutrient stress in Caenorhabditis elegans

Developmental plasticity refers the ability of an organism to adapt to various environmental stressors, one of which is nutritional stress. Caenorhabditis elegans require various nutrients to successfully progress through all the larval stages to become a reproductive adult. If nutritional criteria are not satisfied, development can slow or completely arrest. In poor growth conditions, the animal can enter various diapause stages, depending on its developmental progress. In C. elegans, there are three well-characterized diapauses: the L1 arrest, the dauer diapause, and adult reproductive diapause, each associated with drastic changes in metabolism and germline development. At the centre of these changes is AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). AMPK is a metabolic regulator that maintains energy homeostasis, particularly during times of nutrient stress. Without AMPK, metabolism is disrupted during dauer, leading to the rapid consumption of lipid stores as well as misregulation of metabolic enzymes, leading to reduced survival. During the L1 arrest and dauer diapause, AMPK is responsible for ensuring germline quiescence by modifying the germline chromatin landscape to maintain germ cell integrity until conditions improve. Similar to classic hormonal signalling, small RNAs also play a critical role in regulating development and behaviour in a cell non-autonomous fashion. Thus, during the challenges associated with developmental plasticity, AMPK summons an army of signalling pathways to work collectively to preserve reproductive fitness during these periods of unprecedented uncertainty.

Complementary transcriptomic and proteomic analyses reveal the cellular and molecular processes that drive growth and development of Fasciola hepatica in the host liver

Background

The major pathogenesis associated with Fasciola hepatica infection results from the extensive tissue damage caused by the tunnelling and feeding activity of immature flukes during their migration, growth and development in the liver. This is compounded by the pathology caused by host innate and adaptive immune responses that struggle to simultaneously counter infection and repair tissue damage.

Results

Complementary transcriptomic and proteomic approaches defined the F. hepatica factors associated with their migration in the liver, and the resulting immune-pathogenesis. Immature liver-stage flukes express ~ 8000 transcripts that are enriched for transcription and translation processes reflective of intensive protein production and signal transduction pathways. Key pathways that regulate neoblast/pluripotent cells, including the PI3K-Akt signalling pathway, are particularly dominant and emphasise the importance of neoblast-like cells for the parasite’s rapid development. The liver-stage parasites display different secretome profiles, reflecting their distinct niche within the host, and supports the view that cathepsin peptidases, cathepsin peptidase inhibitors, saposins and leucine aminopeptidases play a central role in the parasite’s destructive migration, and digestion of host tissue and blood. Immature flukes are also primed for countering immune attack by secreting immunomodulating fatty acid binding proteins (FABP) and helminth defence molecules (FhHDM). Combined with published host microarray data, our results suggest that considerable immune cell infiltration and subsequent fibrosis of the liver tissue exacerbates oxidative stress within parenchyma that compels the expression of a range of antioxidant molecules within both host and parasite.

Conclusions

The migration of immature F. hepatica parasites within the liver is associated with an increase in protein production, expression of signalling pathways and neoblast proliferation that drive their rapid growth and development. The secretion of a defined set of molecules, particularly cathepsin L peptidases, peptidase-inhibitors, saponins, immune-regulators and antioxidants allow the parasite to negotiate the liver micro-environment, immune attack and increasing levels of oxidative stress. This data contributes to the growing F. hepatica -omics information that can be exploited to understand parasite development more fully and for the design of novel control strategies to prevent host liver tissue destruction and pathology.

Starvation Responses Throughout the Caenorhabditiselegans Life Cycle

Caenorhabditis elegans survives on ephemeral food sources in the wild, and the species has a variety of adaptive responses to starvation. These features of its life history make the worm a powerful model for studying developmental, behavioral, and metabolic starvation responses. Starvation resistance is fundamental to life in the wild, and it is relevant to aging and common diseases such as cancer and diabetes. Worms respond to acute starvation at different times in the life cycle by arresting development and altering gene expression and metabolism. They also anticipate starvation during early larval development, engaging an alternative developmental program resulting in dauer diapause. By arresting development, these responses postpone growth and reproduction until feeding resumes. A common set of signaling pathways mediates systemic regulation of development in each context but with important distinctions. Several aspects of behavior, including feeding, foraging, taxis, egg laying, sleep, and associative learning, are also affected by starvation. A variety of conserved signaling, gene regulatory, and metabolic mechanisms support adaptation to starvation. Early life starvation can have persistent effects on adults and their descendants. With its short generation time, C. elegans is an ideal model for studying maternal provisioning, transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, and developmental origins of adult health and disease in humans. This review provides a comprehensive overview of starvation responses throughout the C. elegans life cycle.

Interplay of mesoscale physics and agent-like behaviors in the parallel evolution of aggregative multicellularity

Myxobacteria and dictyostelids are prokaryotic and eukaryotic multicellular lineages, respectively, that after nutrient depletion aggregate and develop into structures called fruiting bodies. The developmental processes and resulting morphological outcomes resemble one another to a remarkable extent despite their independent origins, the evolutionary distance between them and the lack of traceable homology in molecular mechanisms. We hypothesize that the morphological parallelism between the two lineages arises as the consequence of the interplay within multicellular aggregates between generic processes, physical and physicochemical processes operating similarly in living and non-living matter at the mesoscale (~10^-3-10^-1 m) and agent-like behaviors, unique to living systems and characteristic of the constituent cells, considered as autonomous entities acting according to internal rules in a shared environment. Here, we analyze the contributions of generic and agent-like determinants in myxobacteria and dictyostelid development and their roles in the generation of their common traits. Consequent to aggregation, collective cell-cell contacts mediate the emergence of liquid-like properties, making nascent multicellular masses subject to novel patterning and morphogenetic processes. In both lineages, this leads to behaviors such as streaming, rippling, and rounding-up, as seen in non-living fluids. Later the aggregates solidify, leading them to exhibit additional generic properties and motifs. Computational models suggest that the morphological phenotypes of the multicellular masses deviate from the predictions of generic physics due to the contribution of agent-like behaviors of cells such as directed migration, quiescence, and oscillatory signal transduction mediated by responses to external cues. These employ signaling mechanisms that reflect the evolutionary histories of the respective organisms. We propose that the similar developmental trajectories of myxobacteria and dictyostelids are more due to shared generic physical processes in coordination with analogous agent-type behaviors than to convergent evolution under parallel selection regimes. Insights from the biology of these aggregative forms may enable a unified understanding of developmental evolution, including that of animals and plants.

AMPK Regulates Developmental Plasticity through an Endogenous Small RNA Pathway in Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans larvae can undergo developmental arrest upon entry into the dauer stage in response to suboptimal growth conditions. Dauer larvae can exit this stage in replete conditions with no reproductive consequence. During this diapause stage, the metabolic regulator AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) ensures that the germ line becomes quiescent to maintain germ cell integrity. Animals that lack all AMPK signalling undergo germline hyperplasia upon entering dauer, while those that recover from this stage become sterile. Neuronal AMPK expression in otherwise AMPK-deficient animals is sufficient for germline quiescence and germ cell integrity and its effects are likely mediated through an endogenous small RNA pathway. Upon impairing small RNA biosynthesis, the post-dauer fertility is restored in AMPK mutants. These data suggest that AMPK may function in neurons to relay a message through small RNAs to the germ cells to alter their quiescence in the dauer stage, thus challenging the permeability of the Weismann barrier.

Biology of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline Stem Cell System

Stem cell systems regulate tissue development and maintenance. The germline stem cell system is essential for animal reproduction, controlling both the timing and number of progeny through its influence on gamete production. In this review, we first draw general comparisons to stem cell systems in other organisms, and then present our current understanding of the germline stem cell system in Caenorhabditis elegans In contrast to stereotypic somatic development and cell number stasis of adult somatic cells in C. elegans, the germline stem cell system has a variable division pattern, and the system differs between larval development, early adult peak reproduction and age-related decline. We discuss the cell and developmental biology of the stem cell system and the Notch regulated genetic network that controls the key decision between the stem cell fate and meiotic development, as it occurs under optimal laboratory conditions in adult and larval stages. We then discuss alterations of the stem cell system in response to environmental perturbations and aging. A recurring distinction is between processes that control stem cell fate and those that control cell cycle regulation. C. elegans is a powerful model for understanding germline stem cells and stem cell biology.