Genome-wide association study implicates testis-sperm specific FKBP6 as a susceptibility locus for impaired acrosome reaction in stallions

Spermatozoal acrosome dysfunction and its role in stallion subfertility

Cases of stallion subfertility due to acrosome dysfunction have been recognized since the 1990s. While some of these were observed in stallions with reduced sperm motility and morphology, a more severe form has been reported in stallions with normal-to-excellent sperm quality parameters, which is also uniquely observed in individuals of the Thoroughbred registry. These stallions carry a susceptibility genotype (A/A-A A in the gene FKBP6, exon 5) for Impaired Acrosomal Exocytosis (IAE). Current clinical observations from our group have identified a few highly subfertile stallions from other breed registries that also display a lower ability to undergo acrosomal exocytosis (AE) but do not carry the A/A-A/A genotype. This document provides a concise review of the role of acrosome dysfunction as a cause of stallion subfertility, including methods to estimate acrosome function and clinical descriptions of IAE in TB and non-TB stallions.

Determinant genetic markers of semen quality in livestock

The reproductive efficiency of livestock is crucial for agricultural productivity and economic sustainability. One critical factor in successful fertilization and the viability of offspring is the quality of semen. Poor semen quality, especially in frozen-thawed semen used in artificial insemination (AI) have been shown to influence conception outcomes, resulting a negative impact on livestock production. Recent advancements in genetic research have identified specific markers linked to semen quality traits in various livestock species, such as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, buffalo, and equines. These genetic markers are essential in screening males for breeding suitability, which in turn enhances selective breeding programs. Understanding these markers is crucial for improving reproductive performance and increasing productivity in livestock populations. This review offers a comprehensive overview of the genetic markers associated with semen quality in key livestock. It explores the underlying genetic mechanisms and their practical implications in animal breeding and management. The review underscores the importance of integrating genetic insights into breeding strategies to optimize reproductive efficiency and ensure the sustainable development of livestock industries.

Proteomic analysis of sperm from fertile stallions and subfertile stallions due to impaired acrosomal exocytosis

Thoroughbred stallions that carry a double-homozygous genotype A/A-A/A for SNPs rs397316122 and rs69101140 in exon 5 of the FKBP6 gene (chr13; EquCab3.0) are uniquely subfertile due to impaired acrosomal exocytosis (IAE). In this study, the sperm proteome in frozen/thawed semen from subfertile Thoroughbred stallions was studied and compared to that of frozen/thawed sperm from fertile Thoroughbred stallions. A total of 2,220 proteins was identified, of which 140 proteins were found to be differentially abundant in sperm from the subfertile stallions compared to that of fertile stallions (83 less and 57 more abundant). Proteins of differential abundance in sperm from the subfertile stallions were mainly overrepresented in the "metabolism" and the "metabolism of lipids" pathways. One of these proteins, arylsulfatase F (ARSF), was studied by immunofluorescence. A lower proportion of sperm displaying ARSF signal at the acrosome region was observed in sperm from subfertile Thoroughbred stallions. In addition, heterologous zona pellucida binding assays revealed that sperm from subfertile Thoroughbred stallions bound at a lower proportion to zonae pellucidae than sperm from fertile Thoroughbred stallions. In conclusion, a group of differential abundance proteins, including some of acrosome origin, were identified in sperm from subfertile stallions with acrosome dysfunction.

Diagnostic Approach to Equine Testicular Disorders

Management of breeding stallions is crucial to equine reproduction. The longevity of the breeding career is the ultimate objective, whether the stallion is used for natural cover or for semen collection and artificial insemination. Stud farm veterinarians should be aware of the techniques used to evaluate testicular function and the diagnostic approach to testicular disorders in cases of emergency. This paper presents the clinical methods used to evaluate testicular health, including palpation, ultrasonography, biopsy, and fine-needle aspiration. The discussion of testicular disorders is broken down into four categories: congenital disorders (cryptorchidism, monorchidism, and testicular hypoplasia), differential diagnosis of scrotal enlargement, differential diagnosis of causes of progressive testicular enlargement, and differential diagnosis of testicular asymmetry or reduction in size with an emphasis on testicular degeneration. The sudden increase in testicular size is often accompanied by severe clinical signs and is a major cause for referral of stallion for surgery. Testicular disorders are illustrated with clinical cases seen by the authors.

Protamine 2 and phospholipase C zeta 1 are possible biomarkers for the diagnosis of male subfertility in frozen-thawed stallion semen

Subfertility is one of the main issues in horse breeding and the study of mRNAs in sperm might help in elucidating the reasons that lead to this diagnosis. The present study aims at assessing the differences in the expression of 10 potential candidate genes in stallions of different fertility. Frozen-thawed semen of 29 stallions was included. Each sample was classified into two groups according to pregnancy rates (PR) achieved with this semen: "good fertility" (GF; n = 17; PR ≥ 30 %) or "poor fertility" (PF; n = 12; PR <20 %). All stallions underwent a breeding soundness examination (BSE) before semen production and were only included into the semen cryopreservation program when raw semen characteristics at BSE met minimal requirements. Semen was cryopreserved following European Union regulations and all stallions met the respective health requirements. Each sample was assessed for concentration (NucleoCounter SP-100), motility (CASA), membrane functionality (SYBR-14/PI), mitochondrial membrane potential (JC-1), morphology (SpermacStain), acrosome integrity (SpermacStain), membrane integrity (HOS test) and chromatin integrity (Aniline blue). Sperm RNAs were extracted using the Direct-zol RNA Miniprep Kit (Zymo Research) and RT-qPCR was performed for each target gene. ACTB and RPL32 were included as reference genes (RGs) for normalization. For each variable of each group, mean, standard deviation and SEM were calculated. The difference in gene expression levels between the GF and PF group were analyzed using the Mann-Whitney U test and Spearman's rank correlation. Significant results were considered with p < 0.05. Sperm quality parameters did not differ significantly between the two groups except for concentration, that was significantly higher in GF (p = 0.043). In GF a positive correlation was identified for PRM1/PRM2 with r = +0.6, while PRM1/ACR (r = -0.495), PRM2/ZPBP (r = -0.645) and CRISP3/ACR (r = -0.551) were inversely correlated. In PF direct correlations were registered for PRM1/PRM2 (r = +0.629), PRM1/PRM3 (r = +0.657), PRM2/SPA17 (r = +0.685), SPA17/PLCZ1 (r = +0.786) and PRM3/ACR (r = +0.627). In the total sample (GF + PF), positive correlations were detected for PRM1/PRM2 (r = +0.625), PRM1/PRM3 (r = +0.368); PRM2/SPA17 (r = +0.465), SPA17/PLCZ1 (r = +0.637) and PLCZ1/ZAN (r = +0.587). Only two of the genes considered were differentially expressed in the 2 groups: PRM2 and PLCZ1, that were significantly (p < 0.05) overexpressed in the GF group. Stallions frozen-thawed semen with higher expression levels of PRM2 and PLCZ1 are more likely to belong to animals with a good pregnancy rate. Further studies are needed to investigate the role of sperm transcripts in male subfertility in stallions.

Phospholipase C Zeta 1 (PLCZ1): The Function and Potential for Fertility Assessment and In Vitro Embryo Production in Cattle and Horses

Phospholipase C Zeta 1 (PLCZ1) is considered a major sperm-borne oocyte activation factor. After gamete fusion, PLCZ1 triggers calcium oscillations in the oocyte, resulting in oocyte activation. In assisted fertilization, oocyte activation failure is a major cause of low fertility. Most cases of oocyte activation failures in humans related to male infertility are associated with gene mutations and/or altered PLCZ1. Consequently, PLCZ1 evaluation could be an effective diagnostic marker and predictor of sperm fertilizing potential for in vivo and in vitro embryo production. The characterization of PLCZ1 has been principally investigated in men and mice, with less known about the PLCZ1 impact on assisted reproduction in other species, such as cattle and horses. In horses, sperm PLCZ1 varies among stallions, and sperm populations with high PLCZ1 are associated with cleavage after intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). In contrast, bull sperm is less able to initiate calcium oscillations and undergo nuclear remodeling, resulting in poor cleavage after ICSI. Advantageously, injections of PLCZ1 are able to rescue oocyte failure in mouse oocytes after ICSI, promoting full development and birth. However, further research is needed to optimize PLCZ1 diagnostic tests for consistent association with fertility and to determine whether PLCZ1 as an oocyte-activating treatment is a physiological, efficient, and safe method for improving assisted fertilization in cattle and horses.

Lactate-induced spontaneous acrosomal exocytosis as a method to study acrosome function in stallion sperm

Evaluation of acrosome function in stallion sperm is mostly based on the use of inducers of acrosomal exocytosis (AE), such as the calcium ionophore A23187 or progesterone. Recently, it has been reported that incubation of stallion sperm under presumed capacitating conditions (i.e., medium formulated with calcium, bicarbonate, and bovine serum albumin) using a lactate-only containing medium (Lac-MW) results in a high rate of spontaneous AE in viable sperm (AE/Viable). In the current study, we developed an alternative assay of acrosome function for stallion sperm following the incubation of sperm in a medium formulated only with lactate as an energy substrate (Lac-MW). In Experiment 1, freshly ejaculated stallion sperm was incubated with 10 μM A23187, Lac-MW, or Control, for up to 6 h under capacitating conditions. The percentages of motile sperm, viable sperm, total AE (Total AE), and AE in viable sperm (AE/Viable) were compared among treatment groups. Incubation in Lac-MW, but not with Control or A23187, resulted in a time-dependent increase in the percentage of AE/Viable, as determined by flow cytometry, particularly at 4 and 6 h of incubation (P < 0.05). In Experiment 2, freshly ejaculated sperm was incubated in Lac-MW for up to 6 h, and the occurrence of protein tyrosine phosphorylation and AE/Viable were determined. At 4h and 6h of incubation in Lac-MW, ∼40% of the sperm displayed a protein tyrosine phosphorylation immunofluorescence pattern that coincides with that recently associated with stallion sperm capacitation (i.e., immunofluorescence signal at the acrosome and midpiece). In Experiment 3, the rate of AE/Viable sperm was compared among freshly ejaculated, cool-stored, and frozen/thawed stallion sperm. Except at 2h incubation in Lac-MW, differences in mean AE/Viable among fresh, cool-stored, and frozen/thawed sperm were not observed (P > 0.05). In Experiment 4, the relationship between Total AE (A23187), or AE/Viable (Lac-MW), and in vivo fertility of 5 stallions was determined. A linear relationship was observed between mean AE/Viable and the per-cycle (r = 0.93; P < 0.05) and seasonal (r = 0.66; P < 0.05) pregnancy rates of five stallions used for artificial insemination with cool-stored semen. In Experiment 5, frozen/thawed sperm from subfertile Thoroughbred (TB) stallions, known to carry the susceptibility genotype for Impaired Acrosomal Exocytosis (IAE; FKBP6 A/A-A/A) was evaluated following incubation in Lac-MW. Sperm from subfertile TB stallions with IAE had lower mean AE/Viable, at both 4h and 6h incubation in Lac-MW, when compared to that of fertile control stallions (P < 0.05). Overall, the Lac-MW model validated in the current study may be a useful complementary assay to evaluate the ability of stallion sperm to physiologically undergo AE and to study stallion fertility potential. This acrosome function assay can be used to evaluate fresh, cool-stored, or frozen/thawed stallion sperm, and describes a strong linear relationship with in vivo-fertility of stallions used in artificial insemination programs.

Genome-Wide Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism-Based Genomic Diversity and Runs of Homozygosity for Selection Signatures in Equine Breeds

The horse, one of the most domesticated animals, has been used for several purposes, like transportation, hunting, in sport, or for agriculture-related works. Kathiawari, Marwari, Manipuri, Zanskari, Bhutia, Spiti, and Thoroughbred are the main breeds of horses, particularly due to their agroclimatic adaptation and role in any kind of strong physical activity, and these characteristics are majorly governed by genetic factors. The genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationship of these Indian equine breeds using microsatellite markers have been reported, but further studies exploring the SNP diversity and runs of homozygosity revealing the selection signature of breeds are still warranted. In our study, the identification of genes that play a vital role in muscle development is performed through SNP detection via the whole-genome sequencing approach. A total of 96 samples, categorized under seven breeds, and 620,721 SNPs were considered to ascertain the ROH patterns amongst all the seven breeds. Over 5444 ROH islands were mined, and the maximum number of ROHs was found to be present in Zanskari, while Thoroughbred was confined to the lowest number of ROHs. Gene enrichment of these ROH islands produced 6757 functional genes, with AGPAT1, CLEC4, and CFAP20 as important gene families. However, QTL annotation revealed that the maximum QTLs were associated with Wither's height trait ontology that falls under the growth trait in all seven breeds. An Equine SNP marker database (EqSNPDb) was developed to catalogue ROHs for all these equine breeds for the flexible and easy chromosome-wise retrieval of ROH along with the genotype details of all the SNPs. Such a study can reveal breed divergence in different climatic and ecological conditions.

Review: Genetic mutations affecting bull fertility

Cattle are a well-suited "model organism" to study the genetic underpinnings of variation in male reproductive performance. The adoption of artificial insemination and genomic prediction in many cattle breeds provide access to microarray-derived genotypes and repeated measurements for semen quality and insemination success in several thousand bulls. Similar-sized mapping cohorts with phenotypes for male fertility are not available for most other species precluding powerful association testing. The repeated measurements of the artificial insemination bulls' semen quality enable the differentiation between transient and biologically relevant trait fluctuations, and thus, are an ideal source of phenotypes for variance components estimation and genome-wide association testing. Genome-wide case-control association testing involving bulls with either aberrant sperm quality or low insemination success revealed several causal recessive loss-of-function alleles underpinning monogenic reproductive disorders. These variants are routinely monitored with customised genotyping arrays in the male selection candidates to avoid the use of subfertile or infertile bulls for artificial insemination and natural service. Genome-wide association studies with quantitative measurements of semen quality and insemination success revealed quantitative trait loci for male fertility, but the underlying causal variants remain largely unknown. Moreover, these loci explain only a small part of the heritability of male fertility. Integrating genome-wide association studies with gene expression and other omics data from male reproductive tissues is required for the fine-mapping of candidate causal variants underlying variation in male reproductive performance in cattle.

The stallion sperm acrosome: Considerations from a research and clinical perspective

During the fertilization process, the interaction between the sperm and the oocyte is mediated by a process known as acrosomal exocytosis (AE). Although the role of the sperm acrosome on fertilization has been studied extensively over the last 70 years, little is known about the molecular mechanisms that govern acrosomal function, particularly in species other than mice or humans. Even though subfertility due to acrosomal dysfunction is less common in large animals than in humans, the evaluation of sperm acrosomal function should be considered not only as a complementary but a routine test when individuals are selected for breeding potential. This certainly holds true for stallions, which might display lower levels of fertility in the face of "acceptable" sperm quality parameters determined by conventional sperm assays. Nowadays, the use of high throughput technologies such as flow cytometry or mass spectrometry-based proteomic analysis is commonplace in the research arena. Such techniques can also be implemented in clinical scenarios of males with "idiopathic" subfertility. The current review focuses on the sperm acrosome, with particular emphasis on the stallion. We aim to describe the physiological events that lead to the acrosome formation within the testis, the role of very specific acrosomal proteins during AE, the methods to study the occurrence of AE under in vitro conditions, and the potential use of molecular biology techniques to discover new markers of acrosomal function and subfertility associated with acrosomal dysfunction in stallions.

Genome-wide association study for frozen-thawed sperm motility in stallions across various horse breeds

OBJECTIVE

The semen quality of stallions including sperm motility is an important target of selection as it has a high level of individual variability. However, effects of the molecular architecture of the genome on the mechanisms of sperm formation and their preservation after thawing have been poorly investigated. Here, we conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for the sperm motility of cryopreserved semen in stallions of various breeds.

METHODS

Semen samples were collected from the stallions of 23 horse breeds. The following semen characteristics were examined: progressive motility (PM), progressive motility after freezing (FPM), and the difference between PM and FPM. The respective DNA samples from these stallions were genotyped using Axiom Equine Genotyping Array.

RESULTS

We performed a GWAS search for single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers and potential genes related to motility properties of frozen-thawed semen in the stallions of various breeds. As a result of the GWAS analysis, two SNP markers, rs1141327473 and rs1149048772, were identified that were associated with preservation of the frozen-thawed stallion sperm motility, the relevant putative candidate genes being NME/NM23 family member 8 (NME8), olfactory receptor family 2 subfamily AP member 1 (OR2AP1), and olfactory receptor family 6 subfamily C member 4 (OR6C4). Potential implications of effects of these genes on sperm motility are herein discussed.

CONCLUSION

The GWAS results enabled us to localize novel SNPs and candidate genes for sperm motility in stallions. Implications of the study for horse breeding and genetics are a better understanding of genomic regions and candidate genes underlying stallion sperm quality, and improvement in horse reproduction and breeding techniques. The identified markers and genes for sperm cryotolerance and the respective genomic regions are promising candidates for further studying the biological processes in the formation and function of the stallion reproductive system.

Thoroughbred stallion fertility is significantly associated with FKBP6 genotype but not with inbreeding or the contribution of a leading sire

This is a follow-up study to validate the previously detected association of the FKBP6 gene with stallion subfertility. Using a select cohort of 150 Thoroughbred stallions with detailed breeding records, we confirm significant association (P < 0.0001) between low per-cycle pregnancy rates (≤50%) and a combined A/A-A/A genotype of SNPs chr13:11 353 372G>A and chr13:11 353 436A>C in FKBP6 exon 5. We also show that stallion subfertility and the combined genotype A/A-A/A are not associated with the level of genetic diversity based on 12 autosomal microsatellite markers, or with pedigree-based inbreeding rate, or the extent of contribution of a leading Thoroughbred sire, Northern Dancer, in a stallion's pedigree. We develop a TaqMan allelic discrimination assay for the two SNPs to facilitate accurate and high-throughput genotyping. We determine allele, genotype and combined genotype frequencies of FKBP6 exon 5 SNPs in a global cohort of 518 Thoroughbreds (76% stallions or geldings and 24% mares) and show that the frequency of the A/A-A/A genotype is 4%. Because there is no similar association between the FKBP6 exon 5 genotype and stallion subfertility in Hanoverians, we suggest that the two SNPs are not causative but rather tagging a breed-specific haplotype with genetic variants unique to Thoroughbreds. Further WGS-based research is needed to identify the molecular causes underlying the observed genotype-phenotype association in Thoroughbred stallions.

Impaired Reproductive Function in Equines: From Genetics to Genomics

Fertility is one of the key factors in the economic and productive success of the equine industry. Despite this, studies on the genetic causes affecting reproductive performance are scarce, especially in mares, where the genetic architecture of the reproductive traits is extremely complex. Today, with the increasing availability of new genomic methodologies for this species, we are presented with an interesting opportunity to understand the genetic basis of equine reproductive disorders. These include, among others, novel techniques for detecting chromosomal abnormalities, whose association with infertility in horses was established over 50 years ago; new sequencing technologies permitting an accurate detection of point mutations influencing fertility, as well as the study of inbreeding and molecular homozygosity, which has been widely suggested as one of the main causes of low reproductive performance in horses. Finally, over the last few years, reproductive performance has also been associated with copy number variants and candidate genes detected by genome-wide association studies on fertility traits. However, such studies are still scarce, probably because they depend on the existence of large and accurate phenotypic datasets of reproductive and/or fertility traits, which are still difficult to obtain in equines.

Genetics of Equine Reproductive Diseases

Reproductive disorders are genetically heterogeneous and complex; available genetic tests are limited to chromosome analysis and 1 susceptibility gene. Cytogenetic analysis should be the first test to confirm or rule out chromosomal aberrations. No causative genes/mutations are known. The only available genetic test for stallion subfertility is based on a susceptibility gene FKBP6. The ongoing progress in equine genomics will improve the status of genetic testing. However, because subfertile phenotypes do not facilitate collection of large numbers of samples or pedigrees, and clinical causes of many cases remain unknown, further progress requires constructive cross-talk between geneticists, clinicians, breeders, and owners.

Equine Genotyping Arrays

High-quality genomic tools have been integral in understanding genomic architecture and function in the modern-day horse. The equine genetics community has a long tradition of pooling resources to develop genomic tools. Since the equine genome was sequenced in 2006, several iterations of high throughput genotyping arrays have been developed and released, enabling rapid and cost-effective genotyping. This review highlights the design considerations of each iteration, focusing on data available during development and outlining considerations in selecting the genetic variants included on each array. Additionally, we outline recent applications of equine genotyping arrays as well as future prospects and applications.

Ten years of the horse reference genome: insights into equine biology, domestication and population dynamics in the post-genome era

The horse reference genome from the Thoroughbred mare Twilight has been available for a decade and, together with advances in genomics technologies, has led to unparalleled developments in equine genomics. At the core of this progress is the continuing improvement of the quality, contiguity and completeness of the reference genome, and its functional annotation. Recent achievements include the release of the next version of the reference genome (EquCab3.0) and generation of a reference sequence for the Y chromosome. Horse satellite‐free centromeres provide unique models for mammalian centromere research. Despite extremely low genetic diversity of the Y chromosome, it has been possible to trace patrilines of breeds and pedigrees and show that Y variation was lost in the past approximately 2300 years owing to selective breeding. The high‐quality reference genome has led to the development of three different SNP arrays and WGSs of almost 2000 modern individual horses. The collection of WGS of hundreds of ancient horses is unique and not available for any other domestic species. These tools and resources have led to global population studies dissecting the natural history of the species and genetic makeup and ancestry of modern breeds. Most importantly, the available tools and resources, together with the discovery of functional elements, are dissecting molecular causes of a growing number of Mendelian and complex traits. The improved understanding of molecular underpinnings of various traits continues to benefit the health and performance of the horse whereas also serving as a model for complex disease across species.

Developing a 670k genotyping array to tag ~2M SNPs across 24 horse breeds

Background

To date, genome-scale analyses in the domestic horse have been limited by suboptimal single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) density and uneven genomic coverage of the current SNP genotyping arrays. The recent availability of whole genome sequences has created the opportunity to develop a next generation, high-density equine SNP array.

Results

Using whole genome sequence from 153 individuals representing 24 distinct breeds collated by the equine genomics community, we cataloged over 23 million de novo discovered genetic variants. Leveraging genotype data from individuals with both whole genome sequence, and genotypes from lower-density, legacy SNP arrays, a subset of ~5 million high-quality, high-density array candidate SNPs were selected based on breed representation and uniform spacing across the genome. Considering probe design recommendations from a commercial vendor (Affymetrix, now Thermo Fisher Scientific) a set of ~2 million SNPs were selected for a next-generation high-density SNP chip (MNEc2M). Genotype data were generated using the MNEc2M array from a cohort of 332 horses from 20 breeds and a lower-density array, consisting of ~670 thousand SNPs (MNEc670k), was designed for genotype imputation.

Conclusions

Here, we document the steps taken to design both the MNEc2M and MNEc670k arrays, report genomic and technical properties of these genotyping platforms, and demonstrate the imputation capabilities of these tools for the domestic horse.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-017-3943-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Modern Techniques for Semen Evaluation

Stallion semen evaluation is an important part of the breeding soundness evaluation. The results of the semen evaluation cannot be interpreted without a thorough knowledge of the mare and management effects that may have played a role or may affect the potential fertility of the stallion evaluated. There are considerations and limitations that the clinician should understand about each test. Any sperm quality test must be interpreted with a clear understanding of how it relates to fertility.

Fertility Assessment in Sorraia Stallions by Sperm-Fish and Fkbp6 Genotyping

The Sorraia, a critically endangered indigenous Iberian horse breed, is characterized by low genetic variability, high rate of inbreeding, bad sperm quality and subfertility. Here, we studied 11 phenotypically normal but subfertile Sorraia stallions by karyotyping, sex chromosome sperm-FISH and molecular analysis of FKBP6 - a susceptibility locus for impaired acrosome reaction (IAR). The stallions had normal sperm concentration (>300 million cells/ml), but the numbers of progressively motile sperm (21%) and morphologically normal sperm (28%) were invariably low. All stallions had a normal 64,XY karyotype. The majority of sperm (89%) had normal haploid sex chromosome content, although 11% of sperm carried various sex chromosome aneuploidies. No correlation was found between the percentage of sperm sex chromosome abnormalities and inbreeding, sperm morphology or stallion age. Direct sequencing of FKBP6 exon 4 for SNPs g.11040315G>A and g.11040379C>A revealed that none of the stallions had the susceptibility genotype (A/A-A/A) for IAR. Instead, all animals had a G/G-A/A genotype - a testimony of low genetic variability. The findings ruled out chromosomal abnormalities and genetic predisposition for IAR as contributing factors for subfertility. However, low fertility of the Sorraia stallions could be partly attributed to relatively higher rate of sex chromosome aneuploidies in the sperm.

Low-frequency germline variants across 6p22.2-6p21.33 are associated with non-obstructive azoospermia in Han Chinese men

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified several common loci contributing to non-obstructive azoospermia (NOA). However, a substantial fraction of NOA heritability remains undefined, especially those low-frequency [defined here as having a minor allele frequency (MAF) between 0.5 and 5%] and rare (MAF below 0.5%) variants. Here, we performed a 3-stage exome-wide association study in Han Chinese men to evaluate the role of low-frequency or rare germline variants in NOA development. The discovery stage included 962 NOA cases and 1348 healthy male controls genotyped by exome chips and was followed by a 2-stage replication with an additional 2168 cases and 5248 controls. We identified three low-frequency variants located at 6p22.2 (rs2298090 in HIST1H1E encoding p.Lys152Arg: OR = 0.30, P = 2.40 × 10(-16)) and 6p21.33 (rs200847762 in FKBPL encoding p.Pro137Leu: OR = 0.11, P = 3.77 × 10(-16); rs11754464 in MSH5: OR = 1.78, P = 3.71 × 10(-7)) associated with NOA risk after Bonferroni correction. In summary, we report an instance of newly identified signals for NOA risk in genes previously undetected through GWAS on 6p22.2-6p21.33 in a Chinese population and highlight the role of low-frequency variants with a large effect in the process of spermatogenesis.

Genetic Susceptibility to Rhodococcus equi

Rhodococcus equi pneumonia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in neonatal foals. Much effort has been made to identify preventative measures and new treatments for R. equi with limited success. With a growing focus in the medical community on understanding the genetic basis of disease susceptibility, investigators have begun to evaluate the interaction of the genetics of the foal with R. equi. This review describes past efforts to understand the genetic basis underlying R. equi susceptibility and tolerance. It also highlights the genetic technology available to study horses and describes the use of this technology in investigating R. equi. This review provides readers with a foundational understanding of candidate gene approaches, single nucleotide polymorphism‐based, and copy number variant‐based genome‐wide association studies, and next generation sequencing (both DNA and RNA).

Genome-wide association study identifies phospholipase C zeta 1 (PLCz1) as a stallion fertility locus in Hanoverian warmblood horses

A consistently high level of stallion fertility plays an economically important role in modern horse breeding. We performed a genome-wide association study for estimated breeding values of the paternal component of the pregnancy rate per estrus cycle (EBV-PAT) in Hanoverian stallions. A total of 228 Hanoverian stallions were genotyped using the Equine SNP50 Beadchip. The most significant association was found on horse chromosome 6 for a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) within phospholipase C zeta 1 (PLCz1). In the close neighbourhood to PLCz1 is located CAPZA3 (capping protein (actin filament) muscle Z-line, alpha 3). The gene PLCz1 encodes a protein essential for spermatogenesis and oocyte activation through sperm induced Ca²⁺-oscillation during fertilization. We derived equine gene models for PLCz1 and CAPZA3 based on cDNA and genomic DNA sequences. The equine PLCz1 had four different transcripts of which two contained a premature termination codon. Sequencing all exons and their flanking sequences using genomic DNA samples from 19 Hanoverian stallions revealed 47 polymorphisms within PLCz1 and one SNP within CAPZA3. Validation of these 48 polymorphisms in 237 Hanoverian stallions identified three intronic SNPs within PLCz1 as significantly associated with EBV-PAT. Bioinformatic analysis suggested regulatory effects for these SNPs via transcription factor binding sites or microRNAs. In conclusion, non-coding polymorphisms within PLCz1 were identified as conferring stallion fertility and PLCz1 as candidate locus for male fertility in Hanoverian warmblood. CAPZA3 could be eliminated as candidate gene for fertility in Hanoverian stallions.

Identification of genomic loci associated with Rhodococcus equi susceptibility in foals

Pneumonia caused by Rhodococcus equi is a common cause of disease and death in foals. Although agent and environmental factors contribute to the incidence of this disease, the genetic factors influencing the clinical outcomes of R. equi pneumonia are ill-defined. Here, we performed independent single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)- and copy number variant (CNV)-based genome-wide association studies to identify genomic loci associated with R. equi pneumonia in foals. Foals at a large Quarter Horse breeding farm were categorized into 3 groups: 1) foals with R. equi pneumonia (clinical group [N = 43]); 2) foals with ultrasonographic evidence of pulmonary lesions that never developed clinical signs of pneumonia (subclinical group [N = 156]); and, 3) foals without clinical signs or ultrasonographic evidence of pneumonia (unaffected group [N = 49]). From each group, 24 foals were randomly selected and used for independent SNP- and CNV-based genome-wide association studies (GWAS). The SNP-based GWAS identified a region on chromosome 26 that had moderate evidence of association with R. equi pneumonia when comparing clinical and subclinical foals. A joint analysis including all study foals revealed a 3- to 4-fold increase in odds of disease for a homozygous SNP within the associated region when comparing the clinical group with either of the other 2 groups of foals or their combination. The region contains the transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily M, member 2 (TRPM2) gene, which is involved in neutrophil function. No associations were identified in the CNV-based GWAS. Collectively, these data identify a region on chromosome 26 associated with R. equi pneumonia in foals, providing evidence that genetic factors may indeed contribute to this important disease of foals.