Seed Dormancy in Arabidopsis Requires Self-Binding Ability of DOG1 Protein and the Presence of Multiple Isoforms Generated by Alternative Splicing

Identification and characterization of functional DOG1 residues regulating the abscisic acid response in Arabidopsis

Abscisic acid (ABA) is an important phytohormone regulating seed dormancy and germination. DELAY OF GERMINATION 1 (DOG1) is a pivotal regulator of seed dormancy and regulates the ABA response by binding with ABA HYPERSENSITIVE GERMINATION 1 (AHG1) and heme. However, to date, the molecular function and regulatory mechanisms of DOG1 remain unclear, including the relationship between DOG1 and the ABA response. Here, we investigate the mechanism of DOG1 in the ABA response using RNA sequencing, genetics, and biochemistry experiments. Our data suggest that DOG1 and AHG1 regulate the expression of many common genes, including seed maturation and ABA response. Moreover, DOG1 acts upstream of ABA INSENSITIVE 5 (ABI5) and regulates ABI5 target genes including LATE EMBRYOGENESIS ABUNDANT 1 (EM1) and EM6. We therefore performed a genetic screen to isolate mutants that suppress the ABA hypersensitive phenotype of YFP-DOG1-overexpressing transgenic plants. Ten mutant alleles caused mutations in the DOG1 transgene region, including three premature stop codon mutations and seven single amino acid substitutions. One of these mutants, P178L, which contains an amino acid substitution, abolished the interaction with AHG1 and promoted the dimerization of DOG1. Furthermore, we identify a heme-binding residue, Cys96, that plays an important role in ABA response. Overall, these data suggest that DOG1 and AHG1 regulate ABA response via ABI5 and that the association between heme and AHG1 is critical for the function of DOG1 during the regulation of seed germination.

Regulation of seed dormancy by histone post-translational modifications in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana

Plants synchronize their growth and development with environmental changes, which is critical for their survival. Among their life cycle transitions, seed germination is key for ensuring the survival and optimal growth of the next generation. However, even under favorable conditions, often germination can be blocked by seed dormancy, a regulatory multilayered checkpoint integrating internal and external signals. Intricate genetic and epigenetic mechanisms underlie seed dormancy establishment, maintenance, and release. In this review, we focus on recent advances that shed light on the complex mechanisms associated with physiological dormancy, prevalent in seed plants, with Arabidopsis thaliana serving as a model. Here, we summarize the role of multiple epigenetic regulators, but with a focus on histone modifications such as acetylation and methylation, that finely tune dormancy responses and influence dormancy-associated gene expression. Understanding these mechanisms can lead to a better understanding of seed biology in general, as well as resulting in the identification of possible targets for breeding climate-resilient plants.

Arabidopsis DNA glycosylase MBD4L improves recovery of aged seeds

DNA glycosylases initiate the base excision repair (BER) pathway by catalyzing the removal of damaged or mismatched bases from DNA. The Arabidopsis DNA glycosylase methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 4 like (MBD4L) is a nuclear enzyme triggering BER in response to the genotoxic agents 5-fluorouracil and 5-bromouracil. To date, the involvement of MBD4L in plant physiological processes has not been analyzed. To address this, we studied the enzyme functions in seeds. We found that imbibition induced the MBD4L gene expression by generating two alternative transcripts, MBD4L.3 and MBD4L.4. Gene activation was stronger in aged than in non-aged seeds. Seeds from mbd4l-1 mutants displayed germination failures when maintained under control or ageing conditions, while 35S:MBD4L.3/mbd4l-1 and 35S:MBD4L.4/mbd4l-1 seeds reversed these phenotypes. Seed nuclear DNA repair, assessed by comet assays, was exacerbated in an MBD4L-dependent manner at 24 h post-imbibition. Under this condition, the BER genes ARP, APE1L, and LIG1 showed higher expression in 35S:MBD4L.3/mbd4l-1 and 35S:MBD4L.4/mbd4l-1 than in mbd4l-1 seeds, suggesting that these components could coordinate with MBD4L to repair damaged DNA bases in seeds. Interestingly, the ATM, ATR, BRCA1, RAD51, and WEE1 genes associated with the DNA damage response (DDR) pathway were activated in mbd4l-1, but not in 35S:MBD4L.3/mbd4l-1 or 35S:MBD4L.4/mbd4l-1 seeds. These results indicate that MBD4L is a key enzyme of a BER cascade that operates during seed imbibition, whose deficiency would cause genomic damage detected by DDR, generating a delay or reduction in germination.

Identification of tomato F-box proteins functioning in phenylpropanoid metabolism

Phenylpropanoids, a class of specialized metabolites, play crucial roles in plant growth and stress adaptation and include diverse phenolic compounds such as flavonoids. Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and chalcone synthase (CHS) are essential enzymes functioning at the entry points of general phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and flavonoid biosynthesis, respectively. In Arabidopsis, PAL and CHS are turned over through ubiquitination-dependent proteasomal degradation. Specific kelch domain-containing F-Box (KFB) proteins as components of ubiquitin E3 ligase directly interact with PAL or CHS, leading to polyubiquitinated PAL and CHS, which in turn influences phenylpropanoid and flavonoid production. Although phenylpropanoids are vital for tomato nutritional value and stress responses, the post-translational regulation of PAL and CHS in tomato remains unknown. We identified 31 putative KFB-encoding genes in the tomato genome. Our homology analysis and phylogenetic study predicted four PAL-interacting SlKFBs, while SlKFB18 was identified as the sole candidate for the CHS-interacting KFB. Consistent with their homolog function, the predicted four PAL-interacting SlKFBs function in PAL degradation. Surprisingly, SlKFB18 did not interact with tomato CHS and the overexpression or knocking out of SlKFB18 did not affect phenylpropanoid contents in tomato transgenic lines, suggesting its irreverence with flavonoid metabolism. Our study successfully discovered the post-translational regulatory machinery of PALs in tomato while highlighting the limitation of relying solely on a homology-based approach to predict interacting partners of F-box proteins.

Complex control of seed germination timing by ERF50 involves RGL2 antagonism and negative feedback regulation of DOG1

Seed dormancy governs germination timing, with both evolutionary and applied consequences. Despite extensive studies on the hormonal and genetic control of these processes, molecular mechanisms directly linking dormancy and germination remain poorly understood. By screening a collection of lines overexpressing Arabidopsis transcription factors, we identified ERF50 as a key gene to control dormancy and germination. To study its regulation, we measured seed-related physiological parameters in loss-of-function mutants and carried out transactivation, protein interaction and ChIP-PCR analyses. We found direct ERF50-mediated repression of DOG1 and activation of EXPA2 transcription, which results in enhanced seed germination. Although ERF50 expression is increased by DOG1 in dormant seeds, ERF50 germination-promoting activity is blocked by RGL2. The physiological, genetic and molecular evidence gathered here supports that ERF50 controls germination timing by regulating DOG1 levels to leverage its role as enhancer of seed germination, via RGL2 antagonism on EXPA2 expression. Our results highlight the central role of ERF50 as a feedback regulator to couple and fine-tune seed dormancy and germination.

Importance of pre-mRNA splicing and its study tools in plants

Alternative splicing (AS) significantly enriches the diversity of transcriptomes and proteomes, playing a pivotal role in the physiology and development of eukaryotic organisms. With the continuous advancement of high-throughput sequencing technologies, an increasing number of novel transcript isoforms, along with factors related to splicing and their associated functions, are being unveiled. In this review, we succinctly summarize and compare the different splicing mechanisms across prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Furthermore, we provide an extensive overview of the recent progress in various studies on AS covering different developmental stages in diverse plant species and in response to various abiotic stresses. Additionally, we discuss modern techniques for studying the functions and quantification of AS transcripts, as well as their protein products. By integrating genetic studies, quantitative methods, and high-throughput omics techniques, we can discover novel transcript isoforms and functional splicing factors, thereby enhancing our understanding of the roles of various splicing modes in different plant species.

Alternative Splicing during Fiber Development in G. hirsutum

Cotton is a valuable cash crop in many countries. Cotton fiber is a trichome that develops from a single epidermal cell and serves as an excellent model for understanding cell differentiation and other life processes. Alternative splicing (AS) of genes is a common post-transcriptional regulatory process in plants that is essential for plant growth and development. The process of AS during cotton fiber formation, on the other hand, is mainly unknown. A substantial number of multi-exon genes were discovered to be alternatively spliced during cotton fiber formation in this study, accounting for 23.31% of the total number of genes in Gossypium hirsutum. Retention intron (RI) is not necessarily the most common AS type, indicating that AS genes and processes during fiber development are very temporal and tissue-specific. When compared to fiber samples, AS is more prevalent at the fiber initiation stages and in the ovule, indicating that development stages and tissues use different AS strategies. Genes involved in fiber development have gone through stage-specific AS, demonstrating that AS regulates cotton fiber development. Furthermore, AS can be regulated by trans-regulation elements such as splicing factor and cis-regulation elements such as gene length, exon numbers, and GC content, particularly at exon-intron junction sites. Our findings also suggest that increased DNA methylation may aid in the efficiency of AS, and that gene body methylation is key in AS control. Finally, our research will provide useful information about the roles of AS during the cotton fiber development process.

Arabidopsis histone deacetylase HD2A and HD2B regulate seed dormancy by repressing DELAY OF GERMINATION 1

Seed dormancy is a crucial developmental transition that affects the adaption and survival of plants. Arabidopsis DELAY OF GERMINATION 1 (DOG1) is known as a master regulator of seed dormancy. However, although several upstream factors of DOG1 have been reported, the exact regulation of DOG1 is not fully understood. Histone acetylation is an important regulatory layer, controlled by histone acetyltransferases and histone deacetylases. Histone acetylation strongly correlates with transcriptionally active chromatin, whereas heterochromatin is generally characterized by hypoacetylated histones. Here we describe that loss of function of two plant-specific histone deacetylases, HD2A and HD2B, resulted in enhanced seed dormancy in Arabidopsis. Interestingly, the silencing of HD2A and HD2B caused hyperacetylation of the DOG1 locus and promoted the expression of DOG1 during seed maturation and imbibition. Knockout of DOG1 could rescue the seed dormancy and partly rescue the disturbed development phenotype of hd2ahd2b. Transcriptomic analysis of the hd2ahd2b line shows that many genes involved in seed development were impaired. Moreover, we demonstrated that HSI2 and HSL1 interact with HD2A and HD2B. In sum, these results suggest that HSI2 and HSL1 might recruit HD2A and HD2B to DOG1 to negatively regulate DOG1 expression and to reduce seed dormancy, consequently, affecting seed development during seed maturation and promoting seed germination during imbibition.

Catsnap: a user-friendly algorithm for determining the conservation of protein variants reveals extensive parallelisms in the evolution of alternative splicing

Understanding the evolutionary conservation of complex eukaryotic transcriptomes significantly illuminates the physiological relevance of alternative splicing (AS). Examining the evolutionary depth of a given AS event with ordinary homology searches is generally challenging and time-consuming. Here, we present Catsnap, an algorithmic pipeline for assessing the conservation of putative protein isoforms generated by AS. It employs a machine learning approach following a database search with the provided pair of protein sequences. We used the Catsnap algorithm for analyzing the conservation of emerging experimentally characterized alternative proteins from plants and animals. Indeed, most of them are conserved among other species. Catsnap can detect the conserved functional protein isoforms regardless of the AS type by which they are generated. Notably, we found that while the primary amino acid sequence is maintained, the type of AS determining the inclusion or exclusion of protein regions varies throughout plant phylogenetic lineages in these proteins. We also document that this phenomenon is less seen among animals. In sum, our algorithm highlights the presence of unexpectedly frequent hotspots where protein isoforms recurrently arise to carry physiologically relevant functions. The user web interface is available at https://catsnap.cesnet.cz/.

The Arabidopsis pre-mRNA 3' end processing related protein FIP1 promotes seed dormancy via the DOG1 and ABA pathways

Seed dormancy is an important adaptive trait to prevent germination occurring at an inappropriate time. The mechanisms governing seed dormancy and germination are complex. Here, we report that FACTOR INTERACTING WITH POLY(A) POLYMERASE 1 (FIP1), a component of the pre-mRNA 3' end processing machinery, is involved in seed dormancy and germination processes in Arabidopsis thaliana. FIP1 is mainly expressed in seeds and the knockout of FIP1 causes reduced seed dormancy, indicating that FIP1 positively influences seed dormancy. Meanwhile, fip1 mutants are insensitive to exogenous ABA during seed germination and early seedling establishment. The terms 'seed maturation' and 'response to ABA stimulus' are significantly enriched in a gene ontology analysis based on genes differentially expressed between fip1-1 and the wild type. Several of these genes, including ABI5, DOG1 and PYL12, show significantly decreased transcript levels in fip1. Genetic analysis showed that either cyp707a2 or dog1-5 partially, but in combination completely, represses the reduced seed dormancy of fip1, indicating that the double mutant cyp707a2 dog1-5 is epistatic to fip1. Moreover, FIP1 is required for CFIM59, another component of pre-mRNA 3' end processing machinery, to govern seed dormancy and germination. Overall, we identified FIP1 as a regulator of seed dormancy and germination that plays a crucial role in governing these processes through the DOG1 and ABA pathways.

The pattern of alternative splicing and DNA methylation alteration and their interaction in linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) response to repeated drought stresses

BACKGROUND

Drought stress has significantly hampered agricultural productivity worldwide and can also result in modifications to DNA methylation levels. However, the dynamics of DNA methylation and its association with the changes in gene transcription and alternative splicing (AS) under drought stress are unknown in linseed, which is frequently cultivated in arid and semiarid regions.

RESULTS

We analysed AS events and DNA methylation patterns in drought-tolerant (Z141) and drought-sensitive (NY-17) linseed under drought stress (DS) and repeated drought stress (RD) treatments. We found that the number of intron-retention (IR) and alternative 3' splice site (Alt3'SS) events were significantly higher in Z141 and NY-17 under drought stress. We found that the linseed response to the DS treatment was mainly regulated by transcription, while the response to the RD treatment was coregulated by transcription and AS. Whole genome-wide DNA methylation analysis revealed that drought stress caused an increase in the overall methylation level of linseed. Although we did not observe any correlation between differentially methylated genes (DMGs) and differentially spliced genes (DSGs) in this study, we found that the DSGs whose gene body region was hypermethylated in Z141 and hypomethylated in NY-17 were enriched in abiotic stress response Gene Ontology (GO) terms. This finding implies that gene body methylation plays an important role in AS regulation in some specific genes.

CONCLUSION

Our study is the first comprehensive genome-wide analysis of the relationship between linseed methylation changes and AS under drought and repeated drought stress. Our study revealed different interaction patterns between differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and DSGs under DS and RD treatments and differences between methylation and AS regulation in drought-tolerant and drought-sensitive linseed varieties. The findings will probably be of interest in the future. Our results provide interesting insights into the association between gene expression, AS, and DNA methylation in linseed under drought stress. Differences in these associations may account for the differences in linseed drought tolerance.

Alternative splicing in ABA signaling during seed germination

Seed germination is an essential step in a plant's life cycle. It is controlled by complex physiological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms and external factors. Alternative splicing (AS) is a co-transcriptional mechanism that regulates gene expression and produces multiple mRNA variants from a single gene to modulate transcriptome diversity. However, little is known about the effect of AS on the function of generated protein isoforms. The latest reports indicate that alternative splicing (AS), the relevant mechanism controlling gene expression, plays a significant role in abscisic acid (ABA) signaling. In this review, we present the current state of the art about the identified AS regulators and the ABA-related changes in AS during seed germination. We show how they are connected with the ABA signaling and the seed germination process. We also discuss changes in the structure of the generated AS isoforms and their impact on the functionality of the generated proteins. Also, we point out that the advances in sequencing technology allow for a better explanation of the role of AS in gene regulation by more accurate detection of AS events and identification of full-length splicing isoforms.

Comparative analysis of wild-type accessions reveals novel determinants of Arabidopsis seed longevity

Understanding the genetic factors involved in seed longevity is of paramount importance in agricultural and ecological contexts. The polygenic nature of this trait suggests that many of them remain undiscovered. Here, we exploited the contrasting seed longevity found amongst Arabidopsis thaliana accessions to further understand this phenomenon. Concentrations of glutathione were higher in longer-lived than shorter-lived accessions, supporting that redox poise plays a prominent role in seed longevity. However, high seed permeability, normally associated with shorter longevity, is also present in long-lived accessions. Dry seed transcriptome analysis indicated that the contribution to longevity of stored messenger RNA (mRNAs) is complex, including mainly accession-specific mechanisms. The detrimental effect on longevity caused by other factors may be counterbalanced by higher levels of specific mRNAs stored in dry seeds, for instance those of heat-shock proteins. Indeed, loss-of-function mutant analysis demonstrated that heat-shock factors HSF1A and 1B contributed to longevity. Furthermore, mutants of the stress-granule zinc-finger protein TZF9 or the spliceosome subunits MOS4 or MAC3A/MAC3B, extended seed longevity, positioning RNA as a novel player in the regulation of seed viability. mRNAs of proteins with putative relevance to longevity were also abundant in shorter-lived accessions, reinforcing the idea that resistance to ageing is determined by multiple factors.

Current overview on the genetic basis of key genes involved in soybean domestication

Modern crops were created through the domestication and genetic introgression of wild relatives and adaptive differentiation in new environments. Identifying the domestication-related genes and unveiling their molecular diversity provide clues for understanding how the domesticated variants were selected by ancient people, elucidating how and where these crops were domesticated. Molecular genetics and genomics have explored some domestication-related genes in soybean (Glycine max). Here, we summarize recent studies about the quantitative trait locus (QTL) and genes involved in the domestication traits, introduce the functions of these genes, clarify which alleles of domesticated genes were selected during domestication. A deeper understanding of soybean domestication could help to break the bottleneck of modern breeding by highlighting unused genetic diversity not selected in the original domestication process, as well as highlighting promising new avenues for the identification and research of important agronomic traits among different crop species.

Parental and Environmental Control of Seed Dormancy in Arabidopsis thaliana

Seed dormancy-the absence of seed germination under favorable germination conditions-is a plant trait that evolved to enhance seedling survival by avoiding germination under unsuitable environmental conditions. In Arabidopsis, dormancy levels are influenced by the seed coat composition, while the endosperm is essential to repress seed germination of dormant seeds upon their imbibition. Recent research has shown that the mother plant modulates its progeny seed dormancy in response to seasonal temperature changes by changing specific aspects of seed coat and endosperm development. This process involves genomic imprinting by means of epigenetic marks deposited in the seed progeny and regulators previously known to regulate flowering time. This review discusses and summarizes these discoveries and provides an update on our present understanding of the role of DOG1 and abscisic acid, two key contributors to dormancy.

Endosperm weakening: The gateway to a seed's new life

Seed germination is a crucial stage in a plant's life cycle, during which the embryo, surrounded by several tissues, undergoes a transition from the quiescent to a highly active state. Endosperm weakening, a key step in this transition, plays an important role in radicle protrusion. Endosperm weakening is initiated upon water uptake, followed by multiple key molecular events occurring within and outside endosperm cells. Although available transcriptomes have provided information about pivotal genes involved in this process, a complete understanding of the signaling pathways are yet to be elucidated. Much remains to be learnt about the diverse intercellular signals, such as reactive oxygen species-mediated redox signals, phytohormone crosstalk, environmental cue-dependent oxidative phosphorylation, peroxisomal-mediated pectin degradation, and storage protein mobilization during endosperm cell wall loosening. This review discusses the evidences from recent researches into the mechanism of endosperm weakening. Further, given that the endosperm has great potential for manipulation by crop breeding and biotechnology, we offer several novel insights, which will be helpful in this research field and in its application to the improvement of crop production.

Global survey of alternative splicing and gene modules associated with fertility regulation in a thermosensitive genic male sterile wheat

Thermosensitive genic male sterile (TGMS) wheat lines are the core of two-line hybrid systems. Understanding the mechanism that regulates male sterility in TGMS wheat lines is helpful for promoting wheat breeding. Several studies have obtained information regarding the mechanisms associated with male sterility at the transcriptional level, but it is not clear how the post-transcriptional process of alternative splicing might contribute to controlling male sterility. In this study, we performed genome-wide analyses of alternative splicing during the meiosis stage in TGMS line BS366 using PacBio and RNA-Seq hybrid sequencing. Cytological observations indicated that cytoskeleton assembly in pollen cells, calcium deposition in pollen and tapetal cells, and vesicle transport in tapetal cells were deficient in BS366. According to our cytological findings, 49 differentially spliced genes were isolated. Moreover, 25 long non-coding RNA targets and three bHLH transcription factors were identified. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis detected four candidate differentially spliced genes that had strong co-relation with the seed setting percentage, which is the direct representation of male sterility in BS366. In this study, we obtained comprehensive data regarding the alternative splicing-mediated regulation of male sterility in TGMS wheat. The candidates identified may provide the molecular basis for an improved understanding of male sterility.

How alternative splicing changes the properties of plant proteins

Most plant primary transcripts undergo alternative splicing (AS), and its impact on protein diversity is a subject of intensive investigation. Several studies have uncovered various mechanisms of how particular protein splice isoforms operate. However, the common principles behind the AS effects on protein function in plants have rarely been surveyed. Here, on the selected examples, we highlight diverse tissue expression patterns, subcellular localization, enzymatic activities, abilities to bind other molecules and other relevant features. We describe how the protein isoforms mutually interact to underline their intriguing roles in altering the functionality of protein complexes. Moreover, we also discuss the known cases when these interactions have been placed inside the autoregulatory loops. This review is particularly intended for plant cell and developmental biologists who would like to gain inspiration on how the splice variants encoded by their genes of interest may coordinately work.

Mutually opposing activity of PIN7 splicing isoforms is required for auxin-mediated tropic responses in Arabidopsis thaliana

Advanced transcriptome sequencing has revealed that the majority of eukaryotic genes undergo alternative splicing (AS). Nonetheless, little effort has been dedicated to investigating the functional relevance of particular splicing events, even those in the key developmental and hormonal regulators. Combining approaches of genetics, biochemistry and advanced confocal microscopy, we describe the impact of alternative splicing on the PIN7 gene in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. PIN7 encodes a polarly localized transporter for the phytohormone auxin and produces two evolutionarily conserved transcripts, PIN7a and PIN7b. PIN7a and PIN7b, differing in a four amino acid stretch, exhibit almost identical expression patterns and subcellular localization. We reveal that they are closely associated and mutually influence each other's mobility within the plasma membrane. Phenotypic complementation tests indicate that the functional contribution of PIN7b per se is minor, but it markedly reduces the prominent PIN7a activity, which is required for correct seedling apical hook formation and auxin-mediated tropic responses. Our results establish alternative splicing of the PIN family as a conserved, functionally relevant mechanism, revealing an additional regulatory level of auxin-mediated plant development.

Temperature during seed maturation controls seed vigour through ABA breakdown in the endosperm and causes a passive effect on DOG1 mRNA levels during entry into quiescence

Temperature variation during seed set is an important modulator of seed dormancy and impacts the performance of crop seeds through effects on establishment rate. It remains unclear how changing temperature during maturation leads to dormancy and growth vigour differences in nondormant seedlings. Here we take advantage of the large seed size in Brassica oleracea to analyse effects of temperature on individual seed tissues. We show that warm temperature during seed maturation promotes seed germination, while removal of the endosperm from imbibed seeds abolishes temperature-driven effects on germination. We demonstrate that cool temperatures during early seed maturation lead to abscisic acid (ABA) retention specifically in the endosperm at desiccation. During this time temperature affects ABA dynamics in individual seed tissues and regulates ABA catabolism. We also show that warm-matured seeds preinduce a subset of germination-related programmes in the endosperm, whereas cold-matured seeds continue to store maturation-associated transcripts including DOG1 because of effects on mRNA degradation before quiescence, rather than because of the effect of temperature on transcription. We propose that effects of temperature on seed vigour are explained by endospermic ABA breakdown and the divergent relationships between temperature and mRNA breakdown and between temperature, seed moisture and the glass transition.

Alternative splicing of the dormancy-associated MADS-box transcription factor gene PpDAM1 is associated with flower bud dormancy in 'Dangshansu' pear (Pyrus pyrifolia white pear group)

Alternative splicing (AS) plays a crucial role in plant growth, development and response to various environmental changes. However, whether alternative splicing of MADS-box transcription factors contributes to the flower bud dormancy process in fruit trees still remains unknown. In this work, the AS profile of genes in the dormant flower buds of 'Dangshansu' pear tree were examined. A total number of 3661 alternatively spliced genes were identified, and three mRNA isoforms of the dormancy associated MADS box (DAM) gene, PpDAM1, derived by alternative splicing, designated as PpDAM1.1, PpDAM1.2 and PpDAM1.3, were characterized. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) analysis indicated that AS of PpDAM1 didn't affect the nucleus localization and homo-/heterodimerization of PpDAM1.1, PpDAM1.2 and PpDAM1.3 proteins, but disturbed the translocation of PpDAM1.1/PpDAM1.1, PpDAM1.3/PpDAM1.3, PpDAM1.1/PpDAM1.3, and PpDAM1.2/PpDAM1.3 dimers to the nucleus. Constitutive expression of PpDAM1.2, but not PpDAM1.1 and PpDAM1.3, in Arabidopsis retarded the growth and development of transgenic plants. Further comparative expression analyses of PpDAM1.1, PpDAM1.2 and PpDAM1.3 in the flower buds of 'Dangshansu' and a less dormant pear cultivar, 'Cuiguan', exhibited that the expression of all the three isoforms in 'Dangshansu' were significantly higher than in 'Cuiguan', especially PpDAM1.2, which showed a predominantly higher expression than PpDAM1.1 and PpDAM1.3 in both cultivars. Our results suggest that alternative splicing of PpDAM1 could play a crucial role in pear flower bud dormancy process.

Medicago ABI3 Splicing Isoforms Regulate the Expression of Different Gene Clusters to Orchestrate Seed Maturation

Seed maturation comprises important developmental processes, such as seed filling and the acquisition of seed germination capacity, desiccation tolerance, longevity, and dormancy. The molecular regulation of these processes is tightly controlled by the LAFL transcription factors, among which ABSCISIC ACID INSENSITIVE 3 (ABI3) was shown to be involved in most of these seed maturation processes. Here, we studied the ABI3 gene from Medicago truncatula, a model legume plant for seed studies. With the transcriptomes of two loss-of-function Medicago abi3 mutants, we were able to show that many gene classes were impacted by the abi3 mutation at different stages of early, middle, and late seed maturation. We also discovered three MtABI3 expression isoforms, which present contrasting expression patterns during seed development. Moreover, by ectopically expressing these isoforms in Medicago hairy roots generated from the abi3 mutant line background, we showed that each isoform regulated specific gene clusters, suggesting divergent molecular functions. Furthermore, we complemented the Arabidopsis abi3 mutant with each of the three MtABI3 isoforms and concluded that all isoforms were capable of restoring seed viability and desiccation tolerance phenotypes even if not all isoforms complemented the seed color phenotype. Taken together, our results allow a better understanding of the ABI3 network in Medicago during seed development, as well as the discovery of commonly regulated genes from the three MtABI3 isoforms, which can give us new insights into how desiccation tolerance and seed viability are regulated.

Post-transcriptional regulation of seed dormancy and germination: Current understanding and future directions

Seed dormancy is a developmental checkpoint that prevents mature seeds from germinating under conditions that are otherwise favorable for germination. Temperature and light are the most relevant environmental factors that regulate seed dormancy and germination. These environmental cues can trigger molecular and physiological responses including hormone signaling, particularly that of abscisic acid and gibberellin. The balance between the content and sensitivity of these hormones is the key to the regulation of seed dormancy. Temperature and light tightly regulate the transcription of thousands of genes, as well as other aspects of gene expression such as mRNA splicing, translation, and stability. Chromatin remodeling determines specific transcriptional outputs, and alternative splicing leads to different outcomes and produces transcripts that encode proteins with altered or lost functions. Proper regulation of chromatin remodeling and alternative splicing may be highly relevant to seed germination. Moreover, microRNAs are also critical for the control of gene expression in seeds. This review aims to discuss recent updates on post-transcriptional regulation during seed maturation, dormancy, germination, and post-germination events. We propose future prospects for understanding how different post-transcriptional processes in crop seeds can contribute to the design of genotypes with better performance and higher productivity.

Normal, novel or none: versatile regulation from alternative splicing

Pre-mRNA splicing is a vital step in the posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression. Splicing is catalyzed by the spliceosome, a multidalton RNA-protein complex, through two successive transesterifications to yield mature mRNAs. In Arabidopsis, more than 61% of all transcripts from intron-containing genes are alternatively spliced, thereby resulting in transcriptome and subsequent proteome diversities for cellular processes. Moreover, it is estimated that more alternative splicing (AS) events induced by adverse stimuli occur to confer stress tolerance. Recently, increasing AS variants encoding normal or novel proteins, or degraded by nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) and their corresponding splicing factors or regulators acting at the posttranscriptional level have been functionally characterized. This review comprehensively summarizes and highlights the advances in our understanding of the biological functions and underlying mechanisms of AS events and their regulators in Arabidopsis and provides prospects for further research on AS in crops.

The role of RNA-binding protein, microRNA and alternative splicing in seed germination: a field need to be discovered

Seed germination is the process through which a quiescent organ reactivates its metabolism culminating with the resumption cell divisions. It is usually the growth of a plant contained within a seed and results in the formation of a seedling. Post-transcriptional regulation plays an important role in gene expression. In cells, post-transcriptional regulation is mediated by many factors, such as RNA-binding proteins, microRNAs, and the spliceosome. This review provides an overview of the relationship between seed germination and post-transcriptional regulation. It addresses the relationship between seed germination and RNA-binding proteins, microRNAs and alternative splicing. This presentation of the current state of the knowledge will promote new investigations into the relevance of the interactions between seed germination and post-transcriptional regulation in plants.

Aethionema arabicum genome annotation using PacBio full-length transcripts provides a valuable resource for seed dormancy and Brassicaceae evolution research

Aethionema arabicum is an important model plant for Brassicaceae trait evolution, particularly of seed (development, regulation, germination, dormancy) and fruit (development, dehiscence mechanisms) characters. Its genome assembly was recently improved but the gene annotation was not updated. Here, we improved the Ae. arabicum gene annotation using 294 RNA-seq libraries and 136 307 full-length PacBio Iso-seq transcripts, increasing BUSCO completeness by 11.6% and featuring 5606 additional genes. Analysis of orthologs showed a lower number of genes in Ae. arabicum than in other Brassicaceae, which could be partially explained by loss of homeologs derived from the At-α polyploidization event and by a lower occurrence of tandem duplications after divergence of Aethionema from the other Brassicaceae. Benchmarking of MADS-box genes identified orthologs of FUL and AGL79 not found in previous versions. Analysis of full-length transcripts related to ABA-mediated seed dormancy discovered a conserved isoform of PIF6-β and antisense transcripts in ABI3, ABI4 and DOG1, among other cases found of different alternative splicing between Turkey and Cyprus ecotypes. The presented data allow alternative splicing mining and proposition of numerous hypotheses to research evolution and functional genomics. Annotation data and sequences are available at the Ae. arabicum DB (https://plantcode.online.uni-marburg.de/aetar_db).

An Updated Overview on the Regulation of Seed Germination

The ability of a seed to germinate and establish a plant at the right time of year is of vital importance from an ecological and economical point of view. Due to the fragility of these early growth stages, their swiftness and robustness will impact later developmental stages and crop yield. These traits are modulated by a continuous interaction between the genetic makeup of the plant and the environment from seed production to germination stages. In this review, we have summarized the established knowledge on the control of seed germination from a molecular and a genetic perspective. This serves as a “backbone” to integrate the latest developments in the field. These include the link of germination to events occurring in the mother plant influenced by the environment, the impact of changes in the chromatin landscape, the discovery of new players and new insights related to well-known master regulators. Finally, results from recent studies on hormone transport, signaling, and biophysical and mechanical tissue properties are underscoring the relevance of tissue-specific regulation and the interplay of signals in this crucial developmental process.

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and Nucleic Acid Modifications During Seed Dormancy

The seed is the propagule of higher plants and allows its dissemination and the survival of the species. Seed dormancy prevents premature germination under favourable conditions. Dormant seeds are only able to germinate in a narrow range of conditions. During after-ripening (AR), a mechanism of dormancy release, seeds gradually lose dormancy through a period of dry storage. This review is mainly focused on how chemical modifications of mRNA and genomic DNA, such as oxidation and methylation, affect gene expression during late stages of seed development, especially during dormancy. The oxidation of specific nucleotides produced by reactive oxygen species (ROS) alters the stability of the seed stored mRNAs, being finally degraded or translated into non-functional proteins. DNA methylation is a well-known epigenetic mechanism of controlling gene expression. In Arabidopsis thaliana, while there is a global increase in CHH-context methylation through embryogenesis, global DNA methylation levels remain stable during seed dormancy, decreasing when germination occurs. The biological significance of nucleic acid oxidation and methylation upon seed development is discussed.

Delay of Germination-1 (DOG1): A Key to Understanding Seed Dormancy

DELAY OF GERMINATION-1 (DOG1), is a master regulator of primary dormancy (PD) that acts in concert with ABA to delay germination. The ABA and DOG1 signaling pathways converge since DOG1 requires protein phosphatase 2C (PP2C) to control PD. DOG1 enhances ABA signaling through its binding to PP2C ABA HYPERSENSITIVE GERMINATION (AHG1/AHG3). DOG1 suppresses the AHG1 action to enhance ABA sensitivity and impose PD. To carry out this suppression, the formation of DOG1-heme complex is essential. The binding of DOG1-AHG1 to DOG1-Heme is an independent processes but essential for DOG1 function. The quantity of active DOG1 in mature and viable seeds is correlated with the extent of PD. Thus, dog1 mutant seeds, which have scarce endogenous ABA and high gibberellin (GAs) content, exhibit a non-dormancy phenotype. Despite being studied extensively in recent years, little is known about the molecular mechanism underlying the transcriptional regulation of DOG1. However, it is well-known that the physiological function of DOG1 is tightly regulated by a complex array of transformations that include alternative splicing, alternative polyadenylation, histone modifications, and a cis-acting antisense non-coding transcript (asDOG1). The DOG1 becomes modified (i.e., inactivated) during seed after-ripening (AR), and its levels in viable seeds do not correlate with germination potential. Interestingly, it was recently found that the transcription factor (TF) bZIP67 binds to the DOG1 promoter. This is required to activate DOG1 expression leading to enhanced seed dormancy. On the other hand, seed development under low-temperature conditions triggers DOG1 expression by increasing the expression and abundance of bZIP67. Together, current data indicate that DOG1 function is not strictly limited to PD process, but that it is also required for other facets of seed maturation, in part by also interfering with the ethylene signaling components. Otherwise, since DOG1 also affects other processes such us flowering and drought tolerance, the approaches to understanding its mechanism of action and control are, at this time, still inconclusive.

The Evening Complex and the Chromatin-Remodeling Factor PICKLE Coordinately Control Seed Dormancy by Directly Repressing DOG1 in Arabidopsis

Primary seed dormancy is acquired during seed development and maturation, which is important for plant fitness and survival. DELAY OF GERMINATION1 (DOG1) plays a critical role in inducing seed dormancy. DOG1 expression increases rapidly during seed development, but the precise mechanism underlying this process remains elusive. In this study, we showed that mutants with a loss or reduced function of the chromatin-remodeling factor PICKLE (PKL) exhibit increased seed dormancy. PKL associates with DOG1 chromatin and inhibits its transcription. We found that PKL physically interacts with LUX ARRHYTHMO (LUX), a member of the evening complex (EC) of the circadian clock. Furthermore, LUX directly binds to a specific coding sequence of DOG1, and DOG1 acts genetically downstream of PKL and LUX. Mutations in either LUX or EARLY FLOWERING3 (ELF3) encoding another member of the EC led to increased DOG1 expression and enhanced seed dormancy. Surprisingly, these phenotypes were abolished when the parent plants were grown under continuous light. In addition, we observed that loss of function of either PKL or LUX decreased H3K27me3 levels at the DOG1 locus. Taken together, our study reveals a regulatory mechanism in which EC proteins coordinate with PKL to transmit circadian signals for directly regulating DOG1 expression and seed dormancy during seed development.

Functional variants of DOG1 control seed chilling responses and variation in seasonal life-history strategies in Arabidopsis thaliana

The seasonal timing of seed germination is critical for plant fitness in different climates. To germinate at the right time of year, seeds respond to seasonal environmental cues, such as cold temperatures. We characterized genetic variation in seed dormancy responses to cold across the geographic range of a widespread annual plant. Induction of secondary seed dormancy during winter conditions (which restricts germination to autumn) was positively correlated with flowering time, constructing winter and spring seasonal life-history strategies. Variation in seed chilling responses was strongly associated with functional variants of a known dormancy gene. These variants showed evidence of ancient diversification associated with Pleistocene glacial cycles, and were associated with climate gradients across the species’ geographical range.

The seasonal timing of seed germination determines a plant’s realized environmental niche, and is important for adaptation to climate. The timing of seasonal germination depends on patterns of seed dormancy release or induction by cold and interacts with flowering-time variation to construct different seasonal life histories. To characterize the genetic basis and climatic associations of natural variation in seed chilling responses and associated life-history syndromes, we selected 559 fully sequenced accessions of the model annual species Arabidopsis thaliana from across a wide climate range and scored each for seed germination across a range of 13 cold stratification treatments, as well as the timing of flowering and senescence. Germination strategies varied continuously along 2 major axes: 1) Overall germination fraction and 2) induction vs. release of dormancy by cold. Natural variation in seed responses to chilling was correlated with flowering time and senescence to create a range of seasonal life-history syndromes. Genome-wide association identified several loci associated with natural variation in seed chilling responses, including a known functional polymorphism in the self-binding domain of the candidate gene DOG1. A phylogeny of DOG1 haplotypes revealed ancient divergence of these functional variants associated with periods of Pleistocene climate change, and Gradient Forest analysis showed that allele turnover of candidate SNPs was significantly associated with climate gradients. These results provide evidence that A. thaliana’s germination niche and correlated life-history syndromes are shaped by past climate cycles, as well as local adaptation to contemporary climate.

The Long-Standing Paradox of Seed Dormancy Unfolded?

There has been a long-standing question in seed research, why cyanide, a respiration inhibitor, breaks seed dormancy. While the alternative respiratory pathway and reactive oxygen species have been suggested to be part of the mechanism, the cell biological and mechanistic significance of this paradox remains unclear. The outcomes of recent research on mitochondrial RNA processing for the subunits of the electron transport chain complexes seem to offer a logical explanation. This opinion article attempts to integrate the accumulating evidence of mitochondrial involvement in ABA signaling with the frontier of seed research on DELAY OF GERMINATION1, a master regulator of dormancy, to present a coherent model for ABA signaling in seeds, which could also address the old paradox in seed research.

Basic LEUCINE ZIPPER TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR67 Transactivates DELAY OF GERMINATION1 to Establish Primary Seed Dormancy in Arabidopsis

Seed dormancy governs the timing of germination, one of the most important developmental transitions in a plant's life cycle. The DELAY OF GERMINATION1 (DOG1) gene is a key regulator of seed dormancy and a major quantitative trait locus in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). DOG1 expression is under tight developmental and environmental regulation, but the transcription factors involved are not known. Here we show that basic LEUCINE ZIPPER TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR67 (bZIP67) acts downstream of the central regulator of seed development, LEAFY COTYLEDON1, to transactivate DOG1 during maturation and help to establish primary dormancy. We show that bZIP67 overexpression enhances dormancy and that bZIP67 protein (but not transcript) abundance is increased in seeds matured in cool conditions, providing a mechanism to explain how temperature regulates DOG1 expression. We also show that natural allelic variation in the DOG1 promoter affects bZIP67-dependent transactivation, providing a mechanism to explain ecotypic differences in seed dormancy that are controlled by the DOG1 locus.

Seed germination and dormancy: The classic story, new puzzles, and evolution

This review highlights recent progresses in seed germination and dormancy research. Research on the weakening of the endosperm during germination, which is almost a classic theme in seed biology, was resumed by α-xylosidase studies. Strong genetic evidence was presented to suggest that the quality control of xyloglucan biosynthesis in the endosperm (and the embryo) plays a critical role in germination. Further analyses on the endosperm and the adjacent layers have suggested that the cutin coat in the endosperm-testa interphase negatively affects germination while the endosperm-embryo interphase produces a sheath that facilitates germination. These progresses significantly advanced our understanding of seed germination mechanisms. A breakthrough in dormancy research, on the other hand, revealed the unique abscisic acid signaling pathway that is regulated by DELAY OF GERMINATION1 (DOG1). The detailed analysis of DOG1 expression uncovered the intriguing story of reciprocal regulation of the sense-antisense pair, which generated new questions. Recent studies also suggested that the DOG1 function is not limited to dormancy but extended through general seed maturation, which provokes questions about the evolution of DOG1 family proteins. Seed biology is becoming more exciting with the classic stories being revitalized and new puzzles emerging from the frontier.

ETR1/RDO3 Regulates Seed Dormancy by Relieving the Inhibitory Effect of the ERF12-TPL Complex on DELAY OF GERMINATION1 Expression

The control of seed dormancy by ethylene has been well studied, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, we report the characterization of the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) mutant reduced dormancy 3 (rdo3) and the cloning of the underlying gene. We demonstrate that rdo3 is a loss-of-function mutant of the ethylene receptor ETHYLENE RESPONSE1 (ETR1). ETR1 controls seed dormancy partially through the DELAY OF GERMINATION1 (DOG1) pathway. Molecular and genetic analyses demonstrated that ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR12 (ERF12) is involved in the regulation of seed dormancy downstream of ETR1. ERF12 interacts with TOPLESS (TPL) and genetically requires TPL to function. ERF12 and TPL repress the expression of DOG1 by occupying its promoter. Thus, we identified the dormancy pathway ETR1-ERF12-TPL-DOG1 and provide mechanistic insights into the regulation of seed dormancy by linking the ethylene and DOG1 pathways.

Alternative Splicing Regulation During Light-Induced Germination of Arabidopsis thaliana Seeds

Seed dormancy and germination are relevant processes for a successful seedling establishment in the field. Light is one of the most important environmental factors involved in the relief of dormancy to promote seed germination. In Arabidopsis thaliana seeds, phytochrome photoreceptors tightly regulate gene expression at different levels. The contribution of alternative splicing (AS) regulation in the photocontrol of seed germination is still unknown. The aim of this work is to study gene expression modulated by light during germination of A. thaliana seeds, with focus on AS changes. Hence, we evaluated transcriptome-wide changes in stratified seeds irradiated with a pulse of red (Rp) or far-red (FRp) by RNA sequencing (RNA-seq). Our results show that the Rp changes the expression of ∼20% of the transcriptome and modifies the AS pattern of 226 genes associated with mRNA processing, RNA splicing, and mRNA metabolic processes. We further confirmed these effects for some of the affected AS events. Interestingly, the reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analyses show that the Rp modulates the AS of splicing-related factors (At-SR30, At-RS31a, At-RS31, and At-U2AF65A), a light-signaling component (At-PIF6), and a dormancy-related gene (At-DRM1). Furthermore, while the phytochrome B (phyB) is responsible for the AS pattern changes of At-U2AF65A and At-PIF6, the regulation of the other AS events is independent of this photoreceptor. We conclude that (i) Rp triggers AS changes in some splicing factors, light-signaling components, and dormancy/germination regulators; (ii) phyB modulates only some of these AS events; and (iii) AS events are regulated by R and FR light, but this regulation is not directly associated with the intensity of germination response. These data will help in boosting research in the splicing field and our understanding about the role of this mechanism during the photocontrol of seed germination.

Alternative Splicing as a Regulator of Early Plant Development

Most plant genes are interrupted by introns and the corresponding transcripts need to undergo pre-mRNA splicing to remove these intervening sequences. Alternative splicing (AS) is an important posttranscriptional process that creates multiple mRNA variants from a single pre-mRNA molecule, thereby enhancing the coding and regulatory potential of genomes. In plants, this mechanism has been implicated in the response to environmental cues, including abiotic and biotic stresses, in the regulation of key developmental processes such as flowering, and in circadian timekeeping. The early plant development steps - from embryo formation and seed germination to skoto- and photomorphogenesis - are critical to both execute the correct body plan and initiate a new reproductive cycle. We review here the available evidence for the involvement of AS and various splicing factors in the initial stages of plant development, while highlighting recent findings as well as potential future challenges.

Carbon monoxide signal regulates light-initiated seed germination by suppressing SOM expression

Light is a critical external signal for seed germination. The photoreceptor phytochrome B (PHYB) perceives light stimulation and promotes seed germination during the early phase after imbibition. SOM is a CCH-type zinc finger protein and negatively regulates PHYB-mediated seed germination by controlling downstream gibberellic acid (GA) and abscisic acid (ABA) metabolism. As a small molecular signal, carbon monoxide (CO) has been reported to regulate seed germination under environmental stress, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we first found that CO enhanced PHYB-dependent seed germination, and red light irradiation increased the transcriptional level of gene encoding Heme oxygenase 1(HY1) for CO production, this process required PHYB. Pharmacological and genetic analyses revealed that CO signals repressed the transcriptional level of SOM to alter downstream GA/ABA metabolism related genes expression, ultimately relieving the inhibitory effect of SOM on seed germination. Furthermore, CO signals possibly recruited histone deacetylase 6 (HDA6) to the promoter region of SOM to decrease its expression by diminishing histone H3 acetylation levels at this locus. Taken together, our results propose a novel mechanism for CO signals in promoting light-initiated seed germination via recruiting HDA6 to epigenetically regulate SOM expression.

Control of seed dormancy and germination by DOG1-AHG1 PP2C phosphatase complex via binding to heme

Abscisic acid (ABA) regulates abiotic stress and developmental responses including regulation of seed dormancy to prevent seeds from germinating under unfavorable environmental conditions. ABA HYPERSENSITIVE GERMINATION1 (AHG1) encoding a type 2C protein phosphatase (PP2C) is a central negative regulator of ABA response in germination; however, the molecular function and regulation of AHG1 remain elusive. Here we report that AHG1 interacts with DELAY OF GERMINATION1 (DOG1), which is a pivotal positive regulator in seed dormancy. DOG1 acts upstream of AHG1 and impairs the PP2C activity of AHG1 in vitro. Furthermore, DOG1 has the ability to bind heme. Binding of DOG1 to AHG1 and heme are independent processes, but both are essential for DOG1 function in vivo. Our study demonstrates that AHG1 and DOG1 constitute an important regulatory system for seed dormancy and germination by integrating multiple environmental signals, in parallel with the PYL/RCAR ABA receptor-mediated regulatory system.

The hormone abscisic acid (ABA) prevents seeds from germination when conditions are not suitable. Here the authors show that DOG1, a positive regulator of germination, impairs ABA signaling via genetic and physical interactions with the AHG1 phosphatase and that DOG1 binding to heme is required for this activity.

Genetic dissection of pre-harvest sprouting resistance in an upland rice cultivar

Seed dormancy is important in rice breeding because it confers resistance to pre-harvest sprouting (PHS). To detect quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for pre-harvest sprouting resistance, we used chromosome segment substitution lines (CSSLs) derived from a cross between the Japanese upland rice cultivar 'Owarihatamochi' and the lowland rice cultivar 'Koshihikari'. In the CSSLs, several chromosomal regions were associated with PHS resistance. Among these, the chromosome 9 segment from 'Owarihatamochi' had the greatest association with increased PHS resistance. Further QTL analysis using an advanced backcross population (BC₄F₂) derived from a 'Koshihikari' × 'Owarihatamochi' cross revealed two putative QTLs, here designated qSDR9.1 (Seed dormancy 9.1) and qSDR9.2, on chromosome 9. The 'Owarihatamochi' alleles of the two QTLs reduced germination. Further fine mapping revealed that qSDR9.1 and qSDR9.2 were located within 4.1-Mb and 2.3-Mb intervals (based on the 'Nipponbare' reference genome sequence) defined by the simple sequence repeat marker loci RM24039 and RM24260 and Indel_2 and RM24540, respectively. We thus identified two QTLs for PHS resistance in 'Owarihatamochi', even though resistance levels are relatively low in this cultivar. This unexpected finding suggests the advantages of using CSSLs for QTL detection.

Global profiling of alternative splicing landscape responsive to drought, heat and their combination in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Plant can acquire tolerance to environmental stresses via transcriptome reprogramming at transcriptional and alternative splicing (AS) levels. However, how AS coordinates with transcriptional regulation to contribute to abiotic stresses responses is still ambiguous. In this study, we performed genome-wide analyses of AS responses to drought stress (DS), heat stress (HS) and their combination (HD) in wheat seedlings, and further compared them with transcriptional responses. In total, we found 200, 3576 and 4056 genes exhibiting significant AS pattern changes in response to DS, HS and HD, respectively, and combined drought and heat stress can induce specific AS compared with individual one. In addition, wheat homeologous genes exhibited differential AS responses under stress conditions that more AS events occurred on B subgenome than on A and D genomes. Comparison of genes regulated at AS and transcriptional levels showed that only 12% of DS-induced AS genes were subjected to transcriptional regulation, whereas the proportion increased to ~40% under HS and HD. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that abiotic stress-responsive pathways tended to be highly overrepresented among these overlapped genes under HS and HD. Thus, we proposed that transcriptional regulation may play a major role in response to DS, which coordinates with AS regulation to contribute to HS and HD tolerance in wheat.

Antisense transcription represses Arabidopsis seed dormancy QTL DOG1 to regulate drought tolerance

Plants have developed multiple strategies to sense the external environment and to adapt growth accordingly. Delay of germination 1 (DOG1) is a major quantitative trait locus (QTL) for seed dormancy strength in Arabidopsis thaliana that is reported to be expressed exclusively in seeds. DOG1 is extensively regulated, with an antisense transcript (asDOG1) suppressing its expression in seeds. Here, we show that asDOG1 shows high levels in mature plants where it suppresses DOG1 expression under standard growth conditions. Suppression is released by shutting down antisense transcription, which is induced by the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) and drought. Loss of asDOG1 results in constitutive high-level DOG1 expression, conferring increased drought tolerance, while inactivation of DOG1 causes enhanced drought sensitivity. The unexpected role of DOG1 in environmental adaptation of mature plants is separate from its function in seed dormancy regulation. The requirement of asDOG1 to respond to ABA and drought demonstrates that antisense transcription is important for sensing and responding to environmental changes in plants.

Chicken Toes-Like Leaf and Petalody Flower (CTP) is a novel regulator that controls leaf and flower development in soybean

A soybean mutant displaying chicken toes-like leaves and petalody flowers was identified as being caused by a single recessive gene, termed ctp. Using heterozygous-inbred recombinants, this gene was fine-mapped to a 37-kb region harbouring three predicted genes on chromosome 5. The gene Glyma05g022400.1 was detected to have a 33-bp deletion in its first exon that was responsible for ctp. Validation for this gene was provided by the fact that the 33-bp deletion-derived marker I2 completely co-segregated with the phenotypes of 96 F10-derived residual heterozygous lines and 2200 fine-mapping individuals, and by the fact that the orthologue NbCTP in Nicotiana benthamiana also influenced leaf and flower development under virus-induced gene silencing. In terms of characterization, the CTPs shared highly conserved domains specifically in higher plants, GmCTP was alternatively spliced, and it was expressed in multiple organs, especially in lateral meristems. GmCTP was localized to the nucleus and other regions and performed transcriptional activity. In ctp, the expression levels and splicing patterns were dramatically disrupted, and many key regulators in leaf and/or floral developmental pathways were interrupted. Thus, CTP is a novel and critical pleiotropic regulator of leaf and flower development that participates in multiple regulation pathways, and may play key roles in lateral organ differentiation as a putative novel transcription regulator.

A high quality Arabidopsis transcriptome for accurate transcript-level analysis of alternative splicing

Alternative splicing generates multiple transcript and protein isoforms from the same gene and thus is important in gene expression regulation. To date, RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) is the standard method for quantifying changes in alternative splicing on a genome-wide scale. Understanding the current limitations of RNA-seq is crucial for reliable analysis and the lack of high quality, comprehensive transcriptomes for most species, including model organisms such as Arabidopsis, is a major constraint in accurate quantification of transcript isoforms. To address this, we designed a novel pipeline with stringent filters and assembled a comprehensive Reference Transcript Dataset for Arabidopsis (AtRTD2) containing 82,190 non-redundant transcripts from 34 212 genes. Extensive experimental validation showed that AtRTD2 and its modified version, AtRTD2-QUASI, for use in Quantification of Alternatively Spliced Isoforms, outperform other available transcriptomes in RNA-seq analysis. This strategy can be implemented in other species to build a pipeline for transcript-level expression and alternative splicing analyses.

DELAY OF GERMINATION1 requires PP2C phosphatases of the ABA signalling pathway to control seed dormancy

The time of seed germination is a major decision point in the life of plants determining future growth and development. This timing is controlled by seed dormancy, which prevents germination under favourable conditions. The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) and the protein DELAY OF GERMINATION 1 (DOG1) are essential regulators of dormancy. The function of ABA in dormancy is rather well understood, but the role of DOG1 is still unknown. Here, we describe four phosphatases that interact with DOG1 in seeds. Two of them belong to clade A of type 2C protein phosphatases: ABA-HYPERSENSITIVE GERMINATION 1 (AHG1) and AHG3. These phosphatases have redundant but essential roles in the release of seed dormancy epistatic to DOG1. We propose that the ABA and DOG1 dormancy pathways converge at clade A of type 2C protein phosphatases.The DOG1 protein is a major regulator of seed dormancy in Arabidopsis. Here, Née et al. provide evidence that DOG1 can interact with the type 2C protein phosphatases AHG1 and AHG3 and that this represents the convergence point of the DOG1-regulated dormancy pathway and signalling by the plant hormone abscisic acid.

DELAY OF GERMINATION1 requires PP2C phosphatases of the ABA signalling pathway to control seed dormancy

The time of seed germination is a major decision point in the life of plants determining future growth and development. This timing is controlled by seed dormancy, which prevents germination under favourable conditions. The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) and the protein DELAY OF GERMINATION 1 (DOG1) are essential regulators of dormancy. The function of ABA in dormancy is rather well understood, but the role of DOG1 is still unknown. Here, we describe four phosphatases that interact with DOG1 in seeds. Two of them belong to clade A of type 2C protein phosphatases: ABA-HYPERSENSITIVE GERMINATION 1 (AHG1) and AHG3. These phosphatases have redundant but essential roles in the release of seed dormancy epistatic to DOG1. We propose that the ABA and DOG1 dormancy pathways converge at clade A of type 2C protein phosphatases.The DOG1 protein is a major regulator of seed dormancy in Arabidopsis. Here, Née et al. provide evidence that DOG1 can interact with the type 2C protein phosphatases AHG1 and AHG3 and that this represents the convergence point of the DOG1-regulated dormancy pathway and signalling by the plant hormone abscisic acid.

Developmental transitions: integrating environmental cues with hormonal signaling in the chromatin landscape in plants

Plant development is predominantly postembryonic and tuned in to respond to environmental cues. All living plant cells can be triggered to de-differentiate, assume different cell identities, or form a new organism. This developmental plasticity is thought to be an adaptation to the sessile lifestyle of plants. Recent discoveries have advanced our understanding of the orchestration of plant developmental switches by transcriptional master regulators, chromatin state changes, and hormone response pathways. Here, we review these recent advances with emphasis on the earliest stages of plant development and on the switch from pluripotency to differentiation in different plant organ systems.

Primary seed dormancy: a temporally multilayered riddle waiting to be unlocked

Primary seed dormancy is an important adaptive plant trait whereby seed germination is blocked under conditions that would otherwise be favorable for germination. This trait is found in newly produced mature seeds of many species, but not all. Once produced, dry seeds undergo an aging time period, called dry after-ripening, during which they lose primary dormancy and gradually acquire the capacity to germinate when exposed to favorable germination conditions. Primary seed dormancy has been extensively studied not only for its scientific interest but also for its ecological, phenological, and agricultural importance. Nevertheless, the mechanisms underlying primary seed dormancy and its regulation during after-ripening remain poorly understood. Here we review the principal developmental stages where primary dormancy is established and regulated prior to and during seed after-ripening, where it is progressively lost. We attempt to identify and summarize what is known about the molecular and genetic mechanisms intervening over time in each of these stages.

Seed dormancy cycling and the regulation of dormancy mechanisms to time germination in variable field environments

Many molecular mechanisms that regulate dormancy have been identified individually in controlled laboratory studies. However, little is known about how the seed employs this complex suite of mechanisms during dormancy cycling in the variable environment of the soil seed bank. Nevertheless, this behaviour is essential to ensure germination takes place in a favourable habitat and climate space, and in the correct season for the resulting plant to complete its life cycle. During their time in the soil seed bank, seeds continually adjust their dormancy status by sensing a range of environmental signals. Those related to slow seasonal change (e.g. temperature) are used for temporal sensing to determine the time of year and depth of dormancy. This alters their sensitivity to signals related to their spatial environment (e.g. light, nitrate, and water potential) that indicate that conditions are suitable for germination, and so trigger the termination of dormancy. We review work on the physiological, molecular, and ecological aspects of seed dormancy in Arabidopsis and interpret it in the context of dormancy cycling in the soil seed bank. This approach has provided new insight into the co-ordination of mechanisms and signalling networks, and the multidimensional sensing that regulates dormancy cycling in a variable environment.