Rubicon prevents autophagic degradation of GATA4 to promote Sertoli cell function

Rubicon, a Key Molecule for Oxidative Stress-Mediated DNA Damage, in Ovarian Granulosa Cells

Aging drives excessive ovarian oxidative stress (OS), impairing fertility and affecting granulosa cells (GCs), which are involved in folliculogenesis. This study aims to clarify the relationship between OS and autophagy in GCs and to identify compounds that enhance OS resistance. We identified Rubicon, an autophagy suppressor, as a key mediator of DNA damage in GCs under OS. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) compromised cell viability via DNA damage in the human GC cell line, HGrC1, without affecting autophagic activity. However, autophagy activation increased OS resistance in HGrC1 cells, and vice versa. Among clinically safe materials, trehalose, a disaccharide, protected cells as an autophagy activator against H2O2-induced cytotoxicity. Trehalose significantly increased autophagic activity, accompanied by reduced Rubicon expression, compared to other carbohydrates. It also reduced the expression of DNA damage-responsive proteins and the production of reactive oxygen species. Rubicon knockdown mitigated OS-induced DNA damage, while Rubicon overexpression enhanced DNA damage and decreased HGrC1 cell viability. Trehalose enhanced OS resistance by activating autophagy and suppressing Rubicon in a bidirectional manner. As Rubicon expression increases in aged human ovaries, trehalose may improve ovarian function in patients with infertility and other OS-related diseases.

LC3-associated phagocytosis and human diseases: Insights from mechanisms to therapeutic potential

LC3-associated phagocytosis (LAP) is a distinct type of autophagy that involves the sequestration of extracellular material by phagocytes. Beyond the removal of dead cells and cellular debris from eukaryotic cells, LAP is also involved in the removal of a variety of pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. These events are integral to multiple physiological and pathological processes, such as host defense, inflammation, and tissue homeostasis. Dysregulation of LAP has been associated with the pathogenesis of several human diseases, including infectious diseases, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying LAP and its involvement in human diseases may provide new insights into the development of novel therapeutic strategies for these conditions. In this review, we summarize and highlight the current consensus on the role of LAP and its biological functions in disease progression to propose new therapeutic strategies. Further studies are needed to illustrate the precise role of LAP in human disease and to determine new therapeutic targets for LAP-associated pathologies.

Microenvironment of spermatogonial stem cells: a key factor in the regulation of spermatogenesis

Spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) play a crucial role in the male reproductive system, responsible for maintaining continuous spermatogenesis. The microenvironment or niche of SSCs is a key factor in regulating their self-renewal, differentiation and spermatogenesis. This microenvironment consists of multiple cell types, extracellular matrix, growth factors, hormones and other molecular signals that interact to form a complex regulatory network. This review aims to provide an overview of the main components of the SSCs microenvironment, explore how they regulate the fate decisions of SSCs, and discuss the potential impact of microenvironmental abnormalities on male reproductive health.

Mutation of the Thap4 gene causes dwarfism and testicular anomalies in rats and mice

The petit (pet) locus is associated with dwarfism, testicular anomalies, severe thymic hypoplasia, and high postnatal lethality, which are inherited in autosomal recessive mode of inheritance in rats with a Wistar strain genetic background. Linkage analysis localized the pet locus between 98.7 Mb and 101.2 Mb on rat chromosome 9. Nucleotide sequence analysis identified 2 bp deletion in exon 2 of the Thap4 gene as the causative mutation for pet. This deletion causes a frameshift and premature termination codon, resulting in a truncated THAP4 protein lacking approximately two-thirds of the C-terminal side. Thap4 is expressed in various organs, including the testis and thymus in rats. To elucidate the biological function of THAP4 in other species, we generated Thap4 knockout mice lacking exon 2 of the Thap4 gene through genome editing. Thap4 knockout mice also exhibited dwarfism and small testis but did not show high postnatal lethality. Thymus weights of adult Thap4 knockout male mice were significantly higher compared to wild-type male mice. Although Thap4 knockout male mice were fertile, their testis contained seminiferous tubules with spermatogenesis and degenerative seminiferous tubules lacking germ cells. Additionally, we observed vacuoles in seminiferous tubules, and clusters of cells in the lumen in seminiferous tubules in Thap4 knockout male mice. These results demonstrate that spontaneous mutation of Thap4 gene in rats and knockout of Thap4 gene in mice both cause dwarfism and testicular anomalies. Thap4 gene in rats and mice is essential for normal testicular development, maintaining spermatogenesis throughout the entire region of seminiferous tubules.

MondoA and AKI and AKI-to-CKD Transition

Key Points

Background

Elderly individuals and patients with CKD are at a higher risk of AKI. The transcription factor MondoA is downregulated in the kidneys of aged individuals or patients with AKI; however, its roles in AKI development and the AKI-to-CKD transition remain unknown.

Methods

We investigated the expression of MondoA in human kidney biopsy samples, ischemia-reperfusion–injured (IRI) mouse kidneys, and cultured proximal tubular epithelial cells under hypoxia/reoxygenation. The role of MondoA during the initial and recovery phases after IRI was evaluated using proximal tubule–specific MondoA knockout mice and MondoA-deficient proximal tubular epithelial cells. Furthermore, we explored the involvement of Rubicon and transcription factor EB (TFEB), both of which are downstream factors of MondoA.

Results

MONDOA expression was decreased in the renal tubules of patients with CKD. In mouse kidneys, MondoA expression was decreased under ischemia, whereas its expression was increased during reperfusion. Genetic ablation of MondoA in proximal tubular epithelial cells inhibited autophagy and increased vulnerability to AKI through increased expression of Rubicon. Ablation of Rubicon in MondoA-deficient IRI kidneys activated autophagy and protected mitochondrial function. MondoA ablation during the recovery phase after ischemia-reperfusion aggravated kidney injury through downregulation of the TFEB-peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α axis. Pharmacological upregulation of TFEB contributed to maintaining mitochondrial biogenesis and increased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α transcription.

Conclusions

Our findings demonstrate that MondoA protected against vulnerability to AKI by maintaining autophagy and subsequently supporting mitochondrial function to prevent progression to CKD.

PFOS exposure destroys the integrity of the blood-testis barrier (BTB) through PI3K/AKT/mTOR-mediated autophagy

Perfluorooctanesulfonate or perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), a type of perfluorinated compound, is mainly found in consumer products. Exposure to PFOS could cause male reproductive toxicity by causing injury to the blood-testis barrier (BTB). However, the specific mechanisms through which PFOS affects male reproduction remain unclear. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a vital protein kinase that is believed to be a central regulator of autophagy. In this study, we established in vivo and in vitro models to explore the effects of PFOS on the BTB, autophagy, and the regulatory role of the mTOR signaling pathway. Adult mice were developmentally exposed to 0, 0.5, 5, and 10 mg/kg/day PFOS for five weeks. Thereafter, their testicular morphology, sperm counts, serum testosterone, expression of BTB-related proteins, and autophagy-related proteins were evaluated. Additionally, TM4 cells (a mouse Sertoli cell line) were used to delineate the molecular mechanisms that mediate the effects of PFOS on BTB. Our results demonstrated that exposure to PFOS induced BTB injury and autophagy, as evidenced by increased expression of autophagy-related proteins, accumulation of autophagosomes, observed through representative electron micrographs, and decreased activity of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. Moreover, treatment with chloroquine, an autophagy inhibitor, alleviated the effects of PFOS on the integrity of TM4 cells in the BTB and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. Overall, this study highlights that exposure to PFOS destroys the integrity of the BTB through PI3K/AKT/mTOR-mediated autophagy.

Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes Ameliorate Aging-Induced BTB Impairment in Porcine Testes by Activating Autophagy and Inhibiting ROS/NLRP3 Inflammasomes via the AMPK/mTOR Signaling Pathway

As a pivotal player in spermatogenesis, the blood-testis barrier (BTB) made from junction apparatus coexisting in Sertoli cells (SCs) is impaired with an increase in age and ultimately induces spermatogenic dysfunction or even infertility. It has been corroborated that bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (BMSC) transplantation can efficiently repair and regenerate the testicular function. As vital mediators of cell-to-cell communication, MSC-derived exosomes (Exos) can directly serve as therapeutic agents for tissue repair and regeneration. However, the therapeutic value of BMSC-Exos in aging-induced BTB damage remains to be confirmed. In this study, we explored that the old porcine testes had defective autophagy, which aggravated BTB disruption in SCs. BMSC-Exos could decrease ROS production and NLRP3 inflammasome activation but enhanced autophagy and tight junction (TJ) function in D-gal-triggered aging porcine SCs and mouse model testes, according to in vitro and in vivo experiments. Furthermore, rapamycin, NAC, MCC950, and IL-1Ra restored the TJ function in D-gal-stimulated aging porcine SCs, while BMSC-Exos' stimulatory effect on TJ function was inhibited by chloroquine. Moreover, the treatment with BMSC-Exos enhanced autophagy in D-gal-induced aging porcine SCs by means of the AMPK/mTOR signal transduction pathway. These findings uncovered through the present study that BMSC-Exos can enhance the BTB function in aging testes by improving autophagy via the AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway, thereby suppressing ROS production and NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

Wuzi Yanzong administration alleviates Sertoli cell injury by recovering AKT/mTOR-mediated autophagy and the mTORC1-mTROC2 balance in aging-induced testicular dysfunction

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Wuzi Yanzong Prescription (WZ), a classic traditional Chinese medicine formula, has the properties of kidney nourishing and essence strengthening, and it is widely used to treat male infertility with a long history. Sertoli cells are injured with aging, resulting in testicular dysfunction, and WZ effectively rejuvenates the age-related decline of testicular function. However, whether the therapeutic effects of WZ on aging-related testicular dysfunction are dependent on the restoration of Sertoli cell function remains unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In a mouse model of natural aging, we explored the protective effects of WZ and its potential mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifteen-month-old C57BL/6 mice were randomized to receive either standard diet or WZ (2 and 8 g/kg) for 3 months. Meanwhile, 10 1-month-old mice were considered the adult control group and received standard diet for 3 months. The testis and epididymis were rapidly collected, and the sperm quality, testicular histology, Sertoli cell numbers, tight junction (TJ) ultrastructure, and blood-testis barrier-associated protein expression and localization were assessed.

RESULTS

WZ significantly increased sperm concentration and sperm viability, improved the degenerative histomorphology and elevated the seminiferous epithelium height. Furthermore, WZ increased the number of Sertoli cells, restored the ultrastructure of the Sertoli cell TJ, and upregulated the expression of TJ-associated proteins (zonula occludens-1 and Claudin11), ectoplasm specialized-associated proteins (N-Cadherin, E-Cadherin and β-Catenin), and gap junction-associated protein (connexin 43), but did not affect the expression of Occludin and cytoskeletal protein (Vimentin). In addition, WZ did not change the localization of zonula occludens-1 and β-Catenin in aged testis. Moreover, WZ increased the expression of autophagy-associated proteins (light chain 3 beta and autophagy related 5) and decreased the expression of p62, phosphorylated mammalian target of rapamycin, and phosphorylated AKT in Sertoli cells. Finally, we found that WZ attenuated mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) activity and upregulated mTORC2 activity, as evidenced by inhibition of the expression of the regulatory-associated protein of mTOR, phosphorylated p70 S6K, and phosphorylated ribosomal protein s6 and enhancement of the expression of Rictor in the Sertoli cells of aging mice.

CONCLUSIONS

WZ improves the injury of Sertoli cells by restoring AKT/mTOR-mediated autophagy and the mTORC1-mTROC2 balance in Sertoli cells during aging. Our findings provide a new mechanism of WZ in the treatment of aging-induced testicular dysfunction.

Single-cell transcriptome analysis of the germ cells and somatic cells during mitotic quiescence stage in goats

The mitotic quiescence of prospermatogonia is the event known to occur during genesis of the male germline and is tied to the development of the spermatogenic lineage. The regulatory mechanisms and the functional importance of this process have been demonstrated in mice; however, regulation of this process in human and domestic animal is still largely unknown. In this study, we employed single-cell RNA sequencing to identify transcriptional signatures of prospermatogonia and major somatic cell types in testes of goats at E85, E105, and E125. We identified both common and specific Gene Ontology categories, transcription factor regulatory networks, and cell-cell interactions in cell types from goat testis. We also analyzed the transcriptional dynamic changes in prospermatogonia, Sertoli cells, Leydig cells, and interstitial cells. Our datasets provide a useful resource for the study of domestic animal germline development.

Opposing roles of RUBCN isoforms in autophagy and memory B cell generation

RUBCN (also known as Rubicon) was originally identified as a negative regulator of autophagy, a process by which cells degrade and recycle damaged components or organelles and that requires the activity of the class III PI3K VPS34 and the mTORC1 protein complex. Here, we characterized the role of a shorter isoform, RUBCN100, as an autophagy-promoting factor in B cells. RUBCN100 was translated from alternative translation initiation sites and lacked the RUN domain of the longer, previously characterized RUBCN130 isoform. Specific deficiency of RUBCN130 in B cells enhanced autophagy, which promoted memory B cell generation. In contrast to RUBCN130, which is localized in late endosomes and lysosomes and suppresses the enzymatic activity of VPS34, an effect thought to mediated by its RUN domain, RUBCN100 was preferentially located in early endosomes and enhanced VPS34 activity, presumably because of the absence of the RUN domain. Furthermore, RUBCN100, but not RUBCN130, enhanced autophagy and suppressed mTORC1 activation. Our findings reveal that the opposing roles of two RUBCN isoforms are critical for autophagy regulation and memory B cell differentiation.

The role of death receptor signaling pathways in mouse Sertoli cell avoidance of apoptosis during LPS- and IL-18-induced inflammatory conditions

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) triggers infectious acute inflammation, and interleukin (IL)-18 is an inflammasome-mediated cytokine. We previously demonstrated that endogenous IL-18 induces testicular germ cell apoptosis during acute inflammation when plasma IL-18 levels are high. Additionally, high-dose recombinant IL-18 (rIL-18) induced Leydig cell apoptosis. The blood-testis barrier formed by Sertoli cells protects testicular germ cells from both exogenous and endogenous harmful substances. However, the impact of LPS and IL-18 on Sertoli cells remained unclear. We stimulated TM4 cells, a mouse Sertoli cell line, with LPS (200 or 1000 ng/mL) or rIL-18 (0.1-100 ng/mL) at levels that induced Leydig cell apoptosis in our previous study and assessed caspase 3 cleavage and the mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines and markers of apoptotic pathways (Tnfr1, Fasl, Fas, Fadd) after stimulation. Il6 mRNA was increased by LPS stimulation. Tnfα mRNA was increased by 200 ng/mL LPS but not 1000 ng/mL LPS. Fas was increased, but Fasl was decreased, by LPS. LPS had little influence on Tnfr1 or Fadd mRNA expression and did not induce apoptosis. Il18 mRNA was not increased, and Il18r1 was significantly decreased following LPS treatment. Treatment with rIL-18 increased Il18r1 mRNA and induced inflammation, but decreased Tnfr1 and had little influence on apoptosis, as indicated by Tnfα, Fasl, Fas, Fadd and cleaved caspase 3. These results suggested that Sertoli cells do not easily undergo apoptosis despite strong inflammatory stimuli. Additionally, Sertoli cells may resist inflammation and play a larger role in protecting testicular homeostasis than other component cells of the testis.

Role of Macroautophagy in Mammalian Male Reproductive Physiology

Physiologically, autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved and self-degradative process in cells. Autophagy carries out normal physiological roles throughout mammalian life. Accumulating evidence shows autophagy as a mechanism for cellular growth, development, differentiation, survival, and homeostasis. In male reproductive systems, normal spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis need a balance between degradation and energy supply to preserve cellular metabolic homeostasis. The main process of autophagy includes the formation and maturation of the phagophore, autophagosome, and autolysosome. Autophagy is controlled by a group of autophagy-related genes that form the core machinery of autophagy. Three types of autophagy mechanisms have been discovered in mammalian cells: macroautophagy, microautophagy, and chaperone-mediated autophagy. Autophagy is classified as non-selective or selective. Non-selective macroautophagy randomly engulfs the cytoplasmic components in autophagosomes that are degraded by lysosomal enzymes. While selective macroautophagy precisely identifies and degrades a specific element, current findings have shown the novel functional roles of autophagy in male reproduction. It has been recognized that dysfunction in the autophagy process can be associated with male infertility. Overall, this review provides an overview of the cellular and molecular basics of autophagy and summarizes the latest findings on the key role of autophagy in mammalian male reproductive physiology.

Perfluorooctanoic acid induces tight junction injury of Sertoli cells by blocking autophagic flux

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), a man-made chemical widely used in consumers, could cause male reproductive toxicity by disrupting blood-testis barrier (BTB) integrity. Autophagy in Sertoli cells is essential for regulation of spermatogenesis and BTB. However, it remains a mystery that whether PFOA-induced BTB injury is associated with autophagy in Sertoli cells. In this study, we found that PFOA dose-dependently disrupted tight junction (TJ) function in Sertoli cells in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, the results from transmission electron microscopy, Western blot and immunofluorescence analysis revealed that PFOA induced the accumulation of autophagosome in testicular Sertoli cells as well as TM4 cells. Further study confirmed that autophagosome accumulation resulted from the blockage of autophagic degradation because of disruption of autophagosome and lysosome fusion via downregulation of the expression of α-SNAP. In parallel, the overexpressed MMP9 was also observed in vivo and in vitro. Conversely, overexpression of α-SNAP inhibited the expression of MMP9 in TM4 cells. In conclusion, PFOA blocks autophagic flux through downregulating the expression levels of α-SNAP in Sertoli cells, and then induces the accumulation of MMP9 leading to disruption of TJ function. This finding will provide clues for effective prevention and treatment of PFOA-induced male reproductive toxicity.

Rubicon can predict prognosis in patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy

BACKGROUND

Despite previous therapeutic studies on autophagy in cancer, its role in the treatment of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma remains controversial, especially regarding its effect on chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and both combined. We focused on RUN domain Beclin-1 interacting and cysteine-rich-containing protein (Rubicon) to reveal its contribution to pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma after chemoradiotherapy.

METHODS

To evaluate the clinical significance of Rubicon, immunohistochemistry was performed, and Rubicon expression was analyzed across 81 specimens resected from patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy. A gemcitabine-resistant pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cell line was established followed by Rubicon expression and autophagy flux estimation. Finally, gemcitabine sensitivity, invasion ability, and cell viability were evaluated using Rubicon-targeting small interfering RNA.

RESULTS

Rubicon expression in resected pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma samples after chemoradiotherapy revealed significantly worse overall survival and recurrence-free survival in the Rubicon-high expression group than in the Rubicon-low expression group (overall survival: median [years] 2.02 vs. 3.21, p = 0.0359; recurrence-free survival: median [years] 0.90 vs. 1.90, p = 0.0146). In vitro, gemcitabine-resistant pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cell lines exhibited higher Rubicon expression and lower autophagy flux than the parental cell line (p < 0.01). Transduction with small interfering RNA downregulated the expression without affecting gemcitabine sensitivity, but it reduced invasion ability and cell viability (p < 0.01) in the gemcitabine-resistant pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cell line.

CONCLUSIONS

High Rubicon expression is a significant, unfavorable prognostic factor in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy. Downregulation of Rubicon expression improves invasion ability and cell viability in gemcitabine-resistant pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma.

Loss of RUBCN/rubicon in adipocytes mediates the upregulation of autophagy to promote the fasting response

Upon fasting, adipocytes release their lipids that accumulate in the liver, thus promoting hepatic steatosis and ketone body production. However, the mechanisms underlying this process are not fully understood. In this study, we found that fasting caused a substantial decrease in the adipose levels of RUBCN/rubicon, a negative regulator of macroautophagy/autophagy, along with an increase in autophagy. Adipose-specific rubcn-knockout mice exhibited systemic fat loss that was not accelerated by fasting. Genetic inhibition of autophagy in adipocytes in fasted mice led to a reduction in fat loss, hepatic steatosis, and ketonemia. In terms of mechanism, autophagy decreased the levels of its substrates NCOA1/SRC-1 and NCOA2/TIF2, which are also coactivators of PPARG/PPARγ, leading to a fasting-induced reduction in the mRNA levels of adipogenic genes in adipocytes. Furthermore, RUBCN in adipocytes was degraded through the autophagy pathway, suggesting that autophagic degradation of RUBCN serves as a feedforward system for autophagy induction during fasting. Collectively, we propose that loss of adipose RUBCN promotes a metabolic response to fasting via increasing autophagic activity.

Rubicon in Metabolic Diseases and Ageing

Autophagy is a conserved cellular degradation system that maintains intracellular homeostasis. Cytoplasmic components are engulfed into double-membrane vesicles called autophagosomes, which fuse with lysosomes, and resulting in the degradation of sequestered materials. Recently, a close association between autophagy and the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases and ageing has become apparent: autophagy is dysregulated during metabolic diseases and ageing; dysregulation of autophagy is intimately associated with the pathophysiology. Rubicon (Run domain Beclin-1 interacting and cysteine-rich containing protein) has been identified as a Beclin-1 associated protein. Notably, Rubicon is one of few negative regulators of autophagy whereas many autophagy-related genes are positive regulators of autophagy. Rubicon also has autophagy-independent functions including phagocytosis and endocytosis. In this mini-review, we focus on the various roles of Rubicon in different organs in the settings of metabolic diseases and ageing, and discuss its potential role as a promising therapeutic target.